ULT- #15 "Scientific Revolution: The Beginning of World Community""

Euguene Rabinowitch's article, "Scientific Revolution: The Beginning of World Community", makes a strong argument that it has been the technological developments and increased knowledge produced from the Scientific Revolution and onward that really began to draw the world into a global community. The pursuit of science and knowledge, from Galileo, Newton, and Voltaire to the modern day, has established itself as the common medium of nations and drawn the world closer together in a global community, ultimately enabling trade and a greater cooperation in knowledge. Many of the great minds of the Scientific Revolution have come directly from Europe: Sir Isaac Newton, Galileo, and Copernicus among others. Then there are the scientific thinkers such as Voltaire, Adam Smith, John Locke who revolutionized modern thought. All these men were European, but they were all from different nations and spoke different tongues. Rabinowitch makes the point that as a result of their contributions, and the subsequent spreading of that knowledge the world became more of a global community as seen in the present day. With industrial, agricultural, and technological developments (all of which came as a result of science), Europe and the rest of the world became a smaller and more productive place. For example, the Bessemer process created by the British Henry Bessemer revolutionized industry, causing greatly augmented production and, subsequently, trade among nations. Rabinowitch is essentially saying that without the Scientific Revolution, and the later developments that resulted from it over the course of several centuries shaped the world has we know it today: the economic theories of men like Adam Smith and the scientific developments of men like Newton and Bessemer were key in developing the global community. This helps us to better understand Europe as it  shows how the products of the Scientific Revolution created a new trade in "knowledge" (of technology, of theories, of ideas, etc) that enabled Europe to come closer together and establish relations that have evolved into modern-day entities like the European Union. Using developments like the steam engine, European countries were able to be more accessible to one another: more accessibility means more trade, more shared knowledge, and more alliances or enemies. Rabinowitch's article demonstrates that, in ways both monumental and miniscule, the Scientific Revolution modernized Europe and brought it closer together, beginning the transformation into Europe as we know it today.

The Plague in France

Context: France, during the Plague. The Black Plague was a huge pandemic that killed off over half of the world's population.

Author: Jean de Venette was a religious man belonging to a group known as the Order of the Brothers of Our Lady of Mount Carmel. Born in 1307, he wrote much about various historical events - often inaccurately.

Summary: At first, Venette is talking about some extraterrestrial object breaking apart in the atmosphere over Paris; he claims this was a sign of the coming plague. He explains the devastation of the plague, saying that people were dying faster than they could be buried. Venette talks of how the deaths were not caused by famine or the like, and people started accusing the Jewish community of poisoning the wells (many Jews were murdered). He also mentions that Pope Clement VI was offering absolution of all sorts of sins, so that people would place the church in their wills. At the end, Venette despairingly comments on the fact that the humans [that he believes God] left behind are worse than the humans killed off.

Key Quote: During the epidemic, God of His accustomed goodness deigned to grant that grace, that however suddenly men died, almost all awaited death joyfully.

"Innocent Chooses the Holy Roman Emperor (1201)"

Author: The reign Pope Innocent III (r. 1198-1216) is generally considered to be the epitome of the medieval papacy.  He firmly asserted the authority of the pope and established much of the infrastructure and bureaucracy we associate with the Church.  His theocratic leanings led papal involvement in politics.

Context:  This document must be considered in larger socio-historical context.  Issued in 1201, between the Third Crusade (1189-1192) and the Fourth Crusade (1202-1204), this document illustrates the complicated relationship between the Church and the state.  Due to complicated political and diplomatic situations in England, Argon, Leon, France, Germany, Sicily, and Tuscany, Innocent intervened in political affairs of the state.

Summary:  This proclamation was issued in the early year's of Innocent's reign and details the relationship between church (the Pope) and state (the King), with the former dominating the latter.  The right to rule is granted by God and, since the Pope is the final authority on Earth, kings must answer to the Pope.  Thus, after explaining the insufficiency of Frederick and Phillip, Innocent chooses Otto as the Holy Roman Emperor because he is "devout" and comes from "devout ancestors."  With this document,  Innocent asserts papal hegemony in Rome and authority over matters both temporal and spiritual.

Key Quotation:  "The empire derives its origin and its final authority from the papacy...the emperor is raised to his position by the pope who blesses him, crowns him, and invests him with the empire"

Unam Sanctum (1302)

Context: Pope Boniface VII gave this Bull (which is just another term for a decree) in a time when the forceful kings of England and France needed money and attained said money by taxing the clergy. In Unam Sanctum, Pope Boniface promoted the famous "Doctrine of Two Swords," a doctrine that emphasized the unity of Christianity and the supremacy of the Pope.

Author: Pope Boniface VII succeeded Pope Innocent III. He headed the church in a time where the ruling Kings began to question the supremacy of the clergy and because of this he promoted the supreme power of the Pope and for this he was eventually attacked, captured, and humiliated by agents of the French King, Philip IV, which ultimately ended the days of papal supremacy. Because this is a decree by the Pope, there should be no mistranslation or influence of another author to bias the text. Clearly, the reader must take into consideration the Pope's unwavering dedication to his position as head of the Catholic church and the power of the church at the time when reading this text.

Summary:  Boniface states that there is only one holy catholic and apostolic church and outside of this church there is no salvation or remission of sins. Basically he is saying that if one does not follow the Pope, he will not be saved from his sins and go to heaven. Therefore, he explains that there is only one body of the one and only church, not two heads (the other, nonexistent head would be the Kings). He explains that spiritual authority should always be more powerful than the power of the state. The spiritual authority essentially establishes the state's power and has the ability to pass judgement on it if it is not good. The spiritual authority can judge the state authority but the spiritual authority can only be judged by its superior (i.e God). Boniface uses many Bible passages to back his statement and closes by saying that submission to the Pope is necessary for salvation. Boniface's ultimate goal is to establish the supreme Power of the church as opposed to the Kings.

Key Quote: "We therefore declare, say, and affirm that submission on the part of every man to the bishop is altogether necessary for his salvation."

The Responsibilities of Kingship (1159)

Author: John of Salibury, John Dickinson
He was an adviser to Thomas Becket in 1159. Thomas Becket was famous for his defiance against Henry the second.

Date/ Context: He is writing this text to advise other prices and rulers on who to take advise from and who to trust. He is also saying how a true ruler should go about ruling his land and him people.

Summary: In this text Dickinson is saying that a prince or ruler is not above god but the ruler follows god and his demands will reflect what god really desires. He says that anyone who does not follow a ruler who is doing gods work is going against god and should be punished. The people under the prices rule should devoutly follow him and even worship him for he will protect his people and do what is right for them. The price or ruler can only get advise from god or other people who represent him in earth.c

Key Quote: "Who, therefor, resists the ruling power, resists the ordinance god"(333)
"Prince, who is subject only to god and to those who excessive His office"(334)

Restraint of Feudal Violence

Author: Drogo Bishop of Terouanne and count Baldwin created the law of conduct. They established this code to keep peace of the people and vassals during times of peace.

Context: (1063) During this period the lord called vassals into service to help deal with crisis and chaos such as invaders approaching. These vassals stayed in charge during times of peace and since they were trained to fight they would get restless. When they got restless they would have conflicts with the lords and this often led to death and destruction of property. When the church had the crusades it left less conflicts also the church wrote a law of conduct to lessen the conflict.

Summary: A law of conduct was created to keep the peace. If one were to commit the crimes like committing assault, or kill a person or destroy property they would be exiled for thirty years. Before the person leaves they need to compensate for the dammage they caused. They cannot be helped or given aid by anyone or they would be punished as well. If the person dies before they finished the exile they were not to be touched and left to lay there. This was active during times of peace and religious holidays. If they deny the charges they shall be give hot iron. If found guilty they shall do penance for seven years.

Key of Quotation: Dearest brothers in the Lord, these are are the conditions you must observe during the time of peace which is commonly called the truce of God, and which begins with sunset on Wednesday and lasts until sunrise on Monday.

ULT #16 - History in the Present

Find a current news story that relates to a topic that we've discussed (or will discuss) in Western Civilization.  In a comment to this post, identify the historic period under examination, a citation for the news story, and a summary of the story that includes a thesis, supporting details, and an explanation of how history impacts the present.

ULT #15 - Article Summary

Post your article summary as a comment to this post.  Your comment should include: the period under examination, a citation for the article, and a summary that includes a thesis, supporting details, and an explanation of how this article helps us to better understand "Europe."

"To His Love Afar"

Author Bio: Jaufre Rudel - d. 1147 - Prince of Blaye; probably died during the Second Crusade; developed the theme of “love from afar” in his songs.

Context: The position of women in society was increasing in the High Middle Ages; women were beginning to be viewed as individuals worthy of love and adoration; “love from afar” was not prefered by all women of the time.

Summary: This poem shows the speakers longing for a woman who is far away. He is pining for her love and adoration, but she is far away from him and he knows that his chance of her returning her love is miniscule. The speaker describes the woman and the barriers between them, all while emphasizing the fact that he is hopelessly in love with her. In the last stanza he states that he does not want to love or be loved again until he is dead because he cannot have the woman he pines for.

Key Quote: “That I should love, and not till I be dead,/ Be loved again.”

"Speech of Pope Urban II at Clermont"

Author Bio:  Robert the Monk was one of the chroniclers of the First Crusade. Little is known about the life of Robert except he identifies himself as a monk from Reims. He writes his chronicle as though he was present at the crusade, but he never partook of the expedition.  

Date/Context:  This piece, “The speech of Pope Urban II at Clermont” was drafted after the Council of Clermont, which launched the First Crusade. Pope Urban II presided at the council and pleaded with the people to take action against the Infidel Muslims who held control of the Holy Land. There are five versions of Urban II’s plea, though Robert the Monk’s version is said to be the most credible.  

Summary: This speech is basically a call to action by Pope Urban II to the Roman Catholic People. He is persuading them to declare war against the Muslims who took control of the Holy Land. He begins his speech by telling the people the account of how the Holy Land was taken over. He continues by speaking about what the attackers did to the inhabitants, and how they desecrated the churches. He then goes on by calling the Catholic Men to fight. He asks them to stop fighting amongst each other, and begin to fight for the common good to win back what is rightfully theirs, the Holy Land. After the conclusion of the speech, the people present begin to chant, in unison “It is the will of God (306).” The pope then comments on that unison by citing the Gospel of Matthew “Where two or three are gathered in my name, there am I in the midst (Matt 18:20).” He speaks of God’s intercession on the crowd and the Pope declares “It is the will of God (306)” as their battle cry. 

Key Quotation: “Set out on the road to the holy sepulcher, take the land from the wicked people, and make it your own (306).”

"Salvation Through Faith Alone"

Author Bio: (Speaker) Martin Luther was a German monk, in which he strongly debated the claim of freedom from God's punishment for sin. Luther taught that salvation was not acquired through good deeds, but only received as a free gift from God's grace through faith.

Date/Context: The is document was written in the year of the mid 15 hundreds. This  speech helps understand the way that people stood alone if they didn't have someone there to support them with the decisions that they thought to be right. Luther wanted to get the fact across that you don't earn salvation just for doing the things people may ask you to do, you receive it as a gift from above.

Summary: This speech was written and spoken to give the people the correct understanding of salvation and how it just doesn't easily come to ones below. Also while Luther was a monk he wasn't willing to omit to any of the prayers and would often take Saturdays off and not eat or drink anything for about 3 days. He had come to the conclusion that if righteousness men live from faith then let it be, but God should contribute to those who believe.

Key Quotations: "Whoever questions what the Roman Church says and does is heretical."

"God led us away from all this in a wonderful way; without my quite being aware of it he took me away from that game more than twenty years ago."

"The Praise of Folly"

Author Bio: The author Desiderius Erasmus was a classic scholar who wrote in pure Latin. He is most known for his humanistic beliefs and he used those techniques throughout his writings. He lived during the times of religious reformation which made a big impact on his writings.

Date/ Context: The date for the document is 1509. The document was written during the times of religious reformation which most likely will influence this piece(educated guess before reading).

Summary:  The church provides many different beliefs and people tend to believe them even if they are purely superstition and they believe it true. These beliefs are believed due to greed and provide simply empty pleasure. The people who present these beliefs are used only by those who want comfortable income such as friars etc. This very income makes it irrelevant to them that they tell such absurdities.The people are told that are told that they must be devoted to the higher lord and they will be secure from the dangers of life. Also the people are told if they do the things for rituals that they will be rewarded with instant riches and great wealth. The people are being tricked by the leaders of the church for their own. The pope of Rome is considered Christ's vicar although this may not be true, the pope lives the life of luxury. Those men who are voted in are not right for their position and will not work well within the church and will only worry about themselves. The church lies to the people and the people must look to the scripture to live their lives.

Key Quotation:  " The very head of the church, the spiritual prince, would then be brought from all his splendour to the poor equipage of scrip and staff"(414)

"Innocent Protects His Realm"

Innocent Protects His Realm (1216)

Context: This was written in 1216 by Pope Innocent.  In this letter, he is addressing the issues between the people of England and King John at the time.  Social issues in England may have provoked the differences in opinion.

Author: Pope Innocent III lived from 1160 to 1216 and was Pope from 1198 until his death.  He is known as one of the most influential and Popes.  He also had great power over different princes throughout Europe.  

Summarize:  A quarrel has arisen King John of England and the people of England about reports that conspiracies and confederacies that have been made against him.  The Pope condemns the accused matters and explains for them to stop planning against the King.  Through his apostolic authority, the Pope dissolves the conspiracies and confederacies that have been made since the issues “between the crown and the church began” (321).  He also threatened excommunication.  To make it up to the King, the Pope requests the people to partake in the customary services and be very careful in the future.  The King was also ordered to treat the men graciously in order to obtain forgiveness for his sins.  This letter was written to hopefully gain the peace of England.  

Key Question: “We ask, and by this apostolic writing, command you to bear yourselves in such a way that England may obtain the peace she so earnestly longs for, and that you may deserve our aid and support in your times of trouble” (322).

Caesar's Reforms

Author: Suetonius (Gaius Suetonius Tranquillus) was a Roman historian and wrote in the Roman Empire during the earlier part of the Imperial Era. He is most famous for his biographies, of which he wrote on twelve Roman rulers (one, of course, being Julius Caesar).

Date/Context: Written in the early Imperial Era of the Roman Empire, Suetonius wrote “Caesar’s Reforms” in AD, so after Caesar was assassinated and long after his rule was over. Caesar had defeated Pompey in 48 B.C.E. and went on to defeat his supporters, leading him to Roman rule. Upon organizing the reforms that Suetonius addresses, senators were discontent with Caesar’s imperial manner and feared him trying to make himself the position of a king. To solve this, they planned his murder.

Summary: Suetonius simply outlines the reforms that Caesar had planned to put in place in Rome, all of which included:

1. Adjusting the calendar to that of which we use now (365 days, 1 extra day every 4 years)

2. Appointed positions in the senate to fill the vacant spots

3. Half the magistrates would be elected by the people, the other half he would personally appoint

4. Reduced those receiving "grain" (aid?) from the public

5. Conferred citizenship to doctors and liberal arts teachers in Rome

6. Did not cancel debts, but still got rid of about 25% of their debt as he made it so that "debtors should satisfy their creditors according to a valuation of their possessions at the price which they paid for them before the Civil War"

7. Made punishments harsher

8. Began more projects to better the empire

However, it was all of these reforms that drove senators to murder Caesar.

Key Quotations: “In particular, for the beautification and convenience of the city, as well as for guarding and extending the bounds of the empire, he formed more projects and more extensive ones every day.”

“All these enterprises and plans were cut short by his death.”

"The Theory of Edward Gibbon"

Author:  Edward Gibbon (1737-1794) - English historian and scholar who was inspired to write a history of Rome after a visit to the city in 1764; a member of the House of Commons from 1774-1783,  where he was considered a nuisance; The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, is still considered to be a seminal work in the historiography of the Roman Empire
Biographical information from:  http://www.kirjasto.sci.fi/egibbon.htm

Date/Context: Excerpted from volume 4 of The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire published in London in 1788; Gibbon, influenced by Enlightened ideas, posited that the fall of the Empire could be attributed to the distractions of Christianity and moral decay

Summary:  In The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, Gibbon analyzed the influence of Christianity on the Roman Empire.  He argues that the teachings of the Church undermined military allegiance and public spirit.  According to Gibbon, the "tyranny" of the Church distracted emperors, commoners, and soldiers alike.  Further,

Key Quotation: "If the decline of the Roman empire was hastened by the conversion of [the Emperor] Constantine, his victorious religion broke the violence of the fall, and mollified the ferocious temper of the conquerors."

Absolute Tyranny

Context: General Marius developed one of the first professional armies by selecting not from farmers but from various veterans. He offered this army all sorts of rewards in return for their loyalty. At some point,  General Sulla becomes angered and has horrible things done to Marius's soldiers.

Author: Appian - Mysterious Greek Roman (Greek by blood) born in 95 to a wealthy Roman couple living in Alexandra, Roman Egypt. He moved to Rome around the age of 25, where he took cases before the emperors. Later, he was elected as an official of Alexandra. His date of death is unknown.

Summary: Sulla brought together the people of Rome and explained that he had some plans, and that he would kill anyone going against these plans. He made a list of roughly 1640 officials that he wanted dead, and almost immediately these people were sought out and either killed or banished. This resulted in Sulla's rise to tyrannic rule; he was the first to hold autocratic rule by force and violence for longer than a short period of time.

Key Quote: "Then Sulla became king, or tyrant, a de facto - not elected but holding power by force and violence."

Imperial City

Author: Flavius Josephus was a first century Romano-Jewish historian. He originally was against the Romans during the Jewish-Roman war as the head of Jewish forces in Galilee. During the war he became a hostage an interpreter. Once the emperor died Josephus gained and took the family name as Flavius. He then transferred to full Roman.

Context/ Date: (14-180 C.E.) This was during the first century of Romes existence under the Augustan system of government. It outlasted some civil war and some bad emperors. Still during this period the Romans had the most success and were most prosperous. This is because of a strong and dedicated army.

Summary: During peace time Flavius talks about how this current time of peace is because of the strong and determined Roman army. He describes how the Roman army protects its city and how it attacks other places. Describing exactly how the army prepares a camp like a strong working man. He also describes how disciplined the army is in not doing anything unless told by a higher rank. The army moves as one and works so well together that nothing can stop them.

Key of Quoatation: "If one goes to study the organization of [the Roman] army as a whole, it will be seen that this vast empire of theirs has to come to them as the prize of valor, and not as a gift of fortune (226)."

"Abuse of Power"

Author Bio: Author - Suetonius (70-135 CE) - Also known as Gaius Suetonius Tranquillus; belong to a wealthy Italian fmaily; life covered the reign of 5 Emperors; received most of his education in Rome; wrote biographies of literary men and Emperors.

Context: Caesar defeated Pompey supporters; Caesar's corrupt reforms that could have led to him becoming king; murder and assassination of Caesar on March 15, 44 BCE.

Summary: Suetonius states that Caesar’s actions justified his assassination because he took advantage of his power. Caesar allowed himself to be given extravagant privileges, the right be a dictator for life, and be arrogant in “his public utterances.” According to Suetonius, Caesar claimed that the Republic was nothing without a powerful leader. Caesar gained  “deadly hatred” from many when he was extremely rude to other politicians and acted very pretentious.

Key Quotation: “Yet after all, his other actions and words so turn the scale, that it is thought that he abused his power and was justly slain.”

The Reforms of Lycurgus

Author: Plutarch

Context: The historian Plutarch (ca. 45–120 CE) writes about the reforms of the Spartan structure under Lycurgus (ca. 600 BCE). Until Lycurgus came to power, Sparta enjoyed a relatively unrestricted political and economic system. Lycurgus transformed the city-state into a military powerhouse. Consequently, Sparta began to enslave Helots in order to provide a means for labor while the bulk of the male population was in military training. Although Sparta did not contribute much to the arts or sciences, they did establish a strict code of discipline that established societal order.

Summary: Plutarch examines the social and economic reforms enacted by Lycurgus. In his excerpt, Lycurgus effectively reduces the power of material wealth in several ways. For one, he establishes the exclusive coinage of silver greatly inflating the market and reducing the change of monetary robbery. Second, he outlawed all extraneous imports and comedies such as gold and jewels, hence the use of the phrase “Spartan.” Lycurgus also shrunk the class discrepancy by eliminating the power of the wealthy. Lycurgus commanded that the wealthy eat the same as the poor. In eliminating differing social tendencies, Lycurgus greatly reduced the influence and power of the upper class. Overall, these reforms instilled the equality, order, and discipline that Lycurgus required to build a warrior-state.

Key Quotation:  “For the rich, being obliged to go to the same table as the poor, could not make use of their abundance, nor so much as please their vanity by looking at or displaying it (77).”

Petrine Theory

Author Bio: Pope Leo I held the papacy from 440 to 461. Little is known about his life prior to his election to the papacy. He is best known for strengthening the papal office, which earned him the title "The Father of the Papacy." He was also the first Pope to be called "The Great."

Date/Context: In the Early Middle Ages, the Catholic Church struggled to maintain unity in doctrine with the Church in the East. The Authority of the Pope as supreme leader of the Catholic Church was disputed members of the Church in the East. This document re-declares the role of the Pope first cited in the Gospel of Matthew.   

Summary: The Petrine Theory reaffirms Jesus' declaration of the Papacy. Pope Leo I explains that Jesus Christ gave authority to all the Apostles, but made St. Peter the head of all the Apostles. He then goes on to condemns any group of people who separates themselves from the papacy. He continues by saying the successors of the Apostles, the Bishops, have the duty to care for the Churches. However, the successor of Peter, the Pope, is the head of the Churches in the whole world.

Key Quotation: “In my humble person he [Peter] should be seen and honored who has the care over all the shepherds and the sheep committed to him, and whose dignity is not lacking in me, his heir, although I am unworthy (217).”

The Transition from Republic to Principate

Author: Tacitus was one of the earliest Greek writers on the art of war and is credited as the first author to provide a complete guide to securing military communications.
Date/ Context: This piece is written after a civil war in Europe war and it is written about how the war was won and the outcome of it.
Summary: Tacitus writes about how the winner of the war, Augustus Caesar won the people over with bribes. While his people were distracted he got to work establishing a Senate and putting in his own laws. He makes the illusion that like everything he controls is peaceful and perfect. He revolutionized his country by stripping him people of their equality and outing himself and their unopposed leader.
Quote: “Stripped of equality, all look up to the commands of a sovereign without the least apprehension for the present" (177).

"The Glory of the City"

The Glory of the City, Strabo

Context: The Glory of the City offers a very short but descriptive explanation of Rome and all of the wonderful things that it offers.  It is unclear when exactly it was written but it was sometime between 44 BC and 31 BC while Strabo lived in Rome.

Author: Strabo was a Greek philosopher, historian, and geographer.  He is most famous for his work Geographica which offered descriptions of people and places from different regions of the word during his era.  Strabo lived and studied in Rome for years, which offers an explanation as to why he has such positive feelings towards the city.

Summarize: The Glory of the City basically just explains how great Rome is at the time.  The city is fortunate enough to have paved roads, a plentiful supply of water from the aqueducts, and houses with their own with water pipes.  It also explains that the present generation is responsible for all of the luxuries that exist because the "ancients bestowed little attention upon the beautifying of Rome" (234).  The also have wonderful arenas for activities such as the circus and wrestling games.  Rome also offers amphitheaters and temples that are so amazing that it would be sad to describe anything after them.  The tombstones are even fabulous and equip with statues.  Strabo concludes with explaining that each work of art is even better than the next, causing you to forget what you saw before.

Key Quotation: "Each successive work causes you speedily to forget that which you have seen before.  Such then is Rome!" (235).

"The Sermon on the Mount"

Author Bio: Author- Matthew (lived during and after the lifetime of Jesus)- former Israeli tax collector on behalf of the Roman Empire, one of the twelve disciples and follower of Jesus of Nazareth. Credited as the author of the first book of the Gospels, Matthew.

Speaker- Jesus of Nazareth (ca. 3 BC- 30 CE) - Jewish religious leader and healer from Israel, central to the founding of Christianity. Known as Jesus Christ to followers, Jesus was known as the Messiah and Savior whose coming had been prophesied in the Old Testament of the Bible. His teachings are recorded in the New Testament of the Bible, specifically in the Four Gospels which include Matthew (source of this text), Mark, Luke, and John.

Date/Context: This sermon was spoken sometime during the final three years of Jesus's lifetime (~30 CE), when the majority of his teachings and works were performed. During this time, Jesus traveled throughout the Israeli countryside, teaching to his disciples and followers. The Bible also reports that he preformed numerous miracles during this time as well, such as healing the sick. At this time, Israel and Judea were under Roman rule, with Herod Antipas ruling as king and Pontius Pilate as the prefect.

Summary: This sermon extols the values of peace, love, and forgiveness, while Jesus instructs his followers on how to live lives pleasing to God. He begins with what are commonly referred to as the Beatitudes, in which Jesus praises the virtues of humility, peace, purity, and obedience to God. He gives his followers hope for a better future in heaven in the face of persecution, and encourages them to live holy lives so that others will want to seek God because of their example. The disciples and Christians are given a high standard of morality to adhere to, including constant love and forgiveness towards others. He rejects the standard "eye for an eye" mentality of revenge, and encourages forgiveness towards enemies, even encouraging followers to pray for their enemies and love them just as God loves everyone. Humility and modesty are again stressed as Jesus encourages his disciples to pray privately in their homes instead of in public for public reward, and he details what is now known as The Lord's Prayer as a sample prayer to follow.

Key Quotation:
"You are like the light for the world. A city built on a high hill cannot be hid. Nobody lights a lamp and puts it under a bowl; instead he puts it on the lamp-stand, where it gives light for everyone in the house. In the same way your light must shine before people, so that they will see the good things you do and give praise to your Father in heaven."

"Feudal Obligations"

Author Bio: Bishop Fulbert of Chartres. He was the Bishop of the Cathedral of Chartres, was responsible for one of its many reconstructions and also taught at the Cathedral school.

Context: Feudalism is a decentralized form of power with very distinct classes. In classic Feudalism there was the King on top, then lords who reigned over a region and vassals who were the class beneath the lords. Vassals swore fealty or loyalty to a lord and in return would receive a section of land or a fief that they could harvest a crop on. Along with their fealty the vassals would also pay homage, meaning that they would fight on the lord's command in order to protect him and the lord promised to protect the vassal from external forces. This type of feudalism was mainly based on military service.

Summary: Bishop Fulbert writes this letter to Duke William of Aquitanians on the relationship between a lord and his vassal. The Bishop believes that the lord and the vassal have an equal relationship in the respect they show for each other. The vassal should always remember to be harmless, safe, honorable, useful, easy and practicable to the lord. The vassal should not only be those six things and avoid doing evil but he also needs to do good. If he does not perform any good, then his avoidance of the bad has no meaning. A vassal should always look to counsel and help his lord in order to keep the worth to the fealty he swore. On the other hand, the lord in return should also be those 6 things because otherwise he will be looked upon with bad faith.

Key Quotation: "However, that the faithful vassal should avoid these injuries is proper, but not for this does he deserve his holding; for it is not sufficient to abstain from evil, unless what is good is done also."

"The Leadership of Alexander" - Arrian

Author Bio: Arrian was a Greek historian and philosopher who was one of the most distinguished and well-known authors during the 2nd-century Roman Empire. His most prominent work is Anabasis, which chronicled the military campaigns and exploits of Alexander the Great. Though a great admirer of Alexander the Great, he was mainly focused on the military aspects of the chronicle.

Context/Date: Arrian was writing in the first century of the Common Era in the Roman Empire, but the actual events he describes take place around 325 BCE. Arrian is reflecting on the strong leadership of Alexander as he retreats back from India close to the end of his exploration and expansion. Alexander and his army are struggling to get through the desert after Alexander's men convince him to return to Macedon. Arrian shows how, despite the hard journey, Alexander's army never questioned his leadership.

Summary: Alexander and his army are crossing the desert, barely able to carry on, but doing so because they are so desperate to find water. Alexander himself is dying of thirst, but marches on at the head of his men to help them endure and show them that their misery is equally shared. A small group of soldiers break off from the group to look for water and discover a small puddle in a gully. Bringing the water back in a helmet, the soldiers give their only source of water to Alexander. Alexander thanks the men and promptly pours the water on the ground. He is making the statement that if no one else could have a drink of water, than neither would he: he was equal to and no better than them. This act provides huge inspiration and a newfound resolve in his men, allowing them to endure and carry on.

Key Quotation:
"Alexander, with a word of thanks for the gift, took the helmet, and, in full view of his troops, poured the water on the ground. So extraordinary was the effect of this action that the water wasted by Alexander was as good as a drink for every man in the army. I cannot praise this act too highly, it was a proof, if anything was, not only of his power of endurance, but also of his genius for leadership."

"Alexander and the Brotherhood of Man"

Author Bio: The speaker of this piece was Alexander the Great. Alexander was the king of Macedon. He is mostly known for having a strong military and his attack on Persia. The author of this document is PLUTARCH. He was a Greek historian known for his biographies.


Date/Context: The documents time period ranges around 330 BC. During this time Alexander the Great decided to expand into Persian land which created a lot of tension. Also during this time Alexander was trying to gain power and keep his reign over the Greek people. He did this because he had a goal to have the strongest army in the land.

Summary: Alexander treated all Greeks as barbarians and wanted all people to live under his rule. His kingdom became full of banishment's and many things shady things happening within the people with power. And those who didn't follow his rules or his whims he overpowered with the army. He saw all wrong doers as aliens in his society. Alexander tried to make everyone a single people under one government rule.

Key Quotation: 
- "He had done so his kingdom would have been filled with warfare, banishment's and secret plots."

- " And to regard their clothing, food, marriages and manners as common to all, blended together by their blood and their children 

"The Breakdown of Roman Unity" Sallust

Author Bio: Roman historian and politician influenced by Thucydides, author of "Funeral Oration of Pericles" and against the old Roman aristocracy. He was a loyal friend and follower of Julius Caesar. Sallust was an active member in politics.

Date/Context: The document was written at a time when the Roman Empire was on the verge of collapse after so many years of adversity, but also prosperity, therefore perfectly fitting the era and its issues. The author, Sallust, is a credible and reliable author as he was very active and involved in politics, and therefore can be trusted to illustrate at least one opinion of politics of the time.

Summary: The main idea that Sallust discusses is that of how emerging political parties and factions contributed to the fall of the Roman empire after years of internal peace within the government. Before the destruction of the Carthage, there was no political strife because the people and the senate governed together in peace due to a common fear: “fear of the enemy preserved the good morals of the state.” Unfortunately when that shared fear evaporated “wantonness and arrogance naturally arose” and internal peace vanished. The nobles began to abuse their power and the disparity between classes became evident, and a two-party system emerged along with the destruction of the state. Tiberius and Gaius Gracchus defied the corruption and were slain, therefore illustrating the terrible means which parties took in order to remain in power. In the end, Sallust concludes that the fall of the Roman Empire, and of peaceful society, comes when one party wishes to overpower and overthrow another without compromise or restraint. The fall of the Roman Empire serves as warning for modern-day societies.

Key Quotation: "It is the spirit which has commonly ruined great nations, when one party desires to triumph over another by any and every means and to avenge itself on the vanquished with excessive cruelty" (161).

The Trial of Socrates, Plato (I,111)

Author Bio:  Plato lived from 427-347 B.C. Plato was a student of Socrates and was born in, and eventually returned to, Athens, Greece. He was a philosopher and mathematician and founded the Academy of Athens, the first western institution of higher learning. Plato was a teacher to Aristotle and believed that human reason and knowledge should be perfected for the betterment of the soul. Clearly, Plato has a bias; it can be assumed that he idolized his mentor, Socrates, and would only write great things about him. 

Date/Context: The Trial of Socrates was written by Plato in 399 B.C. After the Peloponnesian War ended in 404 B.C, A Spartan occupation force replaced the Athenian democracy from 404 to 403. Although a democracy was reinstated, it was not did not show tolerance towards ideas or freedom of speech as the Athenian democracy did before it. Socrates disliked teachers who taught for a fee and shared information and encouraged self-reflection. In 399 B.C, the government accused him of not believing in the gods of the state and corrupting the youth. Plato watched his trial and made an account of his defense. Unfortunately, Socrates was condemned to death. 

Summary: Socrates first starts of by stating that most of his accusers do not even know and cannot tell why he is villainous, but simply repeat the charges that men use to condemn all philosophers: that they teach things up in the clouds and under the earth, have no gods, and make the worse appear better for the cause. He then goes on to explain the he is not upset and ashamed that his life is coming to an untimely end because the only things he considers in life is whether his actions are right or wrong. He would rather be sentenced to death than cease to teach philosophy. He sarcastically explains that he is "corrupting the youth" by encouraging them to care about wisdom and truth as opposed to money, honor and reputation. He states the he is not arguing for his sake, but for the people of Athens. He says that he is God's gadfly (Gadfly can be defined as a fly who bites livestock but also as a person who provokes others into action through criticism). Society will not find another person to arouse, persuade, and reproach the men of the state. He states that after his death a punishment much greater than his will await his murderers; if his murderers think that by killing him they can prevent someone from censuring their evil lives, they are mistaken. He closes by asking society to punish his sons if they care for riches more than virtue in their adult lives.

Key Quotation:

"There you are mistaken: a man who is good for anything ought not to calculate the chance of living or dying; he ought to only consider whether in doing anything he is doing right or wrong..."

"A Christian Defense"

Author Bio: (Speaker) Christian apologists is a christian theology that aims to announce a basis for Christian faith and defending the faiths against objections.Also to defend the Christian position. (Author) Tertullian is a prolific early Christian author. He was the first Christian author to produce a collection of Latin Christian Literature.

Date/Context: The writing was written based off the way that the Christians were being treated in the year 160 AD. During this time Christians were being treat unfairly due to their beliefs, and nobody wanted anything to do with them.

Summary: This speech was given by a Christian apologist, she wanted to get the others around to stop having so much hatred toward them for being a christian and not believing in a living god like everyone else. They are speaking to the people who are against having Christians around because they come off as being different, and accused of murdering babies to eat them. All the Christians are treated as an alien, should men hate what they do not know deserves hatred? No one wanted to listen to what any Christian had to say about the types of things they believe in or why they believe in it.

Key Quotations: "Meanwhile, there is one thing for which she strives: That she be not condemned without a hearing..." (pg.208)

"Christians alone are not permitted to say nothing that would clear their name, vindicate the truth, and aid the judge to come to a fair decisions." (pg.208)

"We are always spoken of in this way, yet you take no pains to bring into the light the charges which for so long a time have been made against us." (pg.209)

"The Funeral Oration of Pericles"

NOTE:  This is a sample PDP compiled from GoogleDocs created by groups of students.  Please follow this format when creating your own PDP.

Author Bio:  Author - Thucydides (ca. 460-400 BCE) - Greek historian who was born in Alimos;  a product of Sophist movement; considered the father of scientific history & founder of modern historiography; strove to maintain impartiality & accuracy in his accounts

Speaker - Pericles (ca. 495-429 BCE, r. 461-429 BCE) - leader of Athens largely responsible for Delian League; initiates rebuilding of Parthenon for glory of Athens & as public works project; called "the first citizen of Athens" by Thucydides

Date/Context:  Alliances between competing city-states created tensions in Greek world; Athens as democracy; The beginning of the Peloponnesian Wars (431-404 BCE), in which Sparta and its allies (Peloponnesian League) are fighting with Athens and its allies (Delian League) in order to check the imperialistic Athens’ power; this speech was delivered in 430 at the beginning of the Peloponnesian Wars

Summary: In this speech to widows and parents of the fallen soldiers, Pericles describes the greatness of Athenian society as a justification for the deaths and continued fighting.  Pericles highlights the individual’s status in democracy, that he has free will to go about his pursuits. However, when called upon by the state, he willingly defends her to keep her free. He extols the glories of Athens as a mighty city-state founded on knowledge and reason, and he tells these relatives that any man should be proud to fight and die for such a wonderful and admirable cause. He describes the men as honorable and praises their sacrifice. He declares Athens to be superior to Sparta, and that although the Athenian soldiers do not undergo such rigorous training as Spartans they are no less brave and should be esteemed highly for their sacrifice. Further, he emphasizes that after completing hard work, one should enjoy beauty and wealth. Finally, he reminds citizens to be proud of their sacrifice and to continue to fight and work in support of this great city.

Key Quotation: (quotations for all groups are listed below)

• “I have no wish to make a long speech on subject familiar to you all: so I shall say nothing about the warlike deeds by which we acquire our power or the battles in which we or our fathers gallantly resisted our enemies greek or foreign.”
• “Happiness depends on being free, and freedom depends on being courageous.”
• “Others are brave out of ignorance; and, when they stop to think, they begin to fear. But the man who can most truly be accounted brave is he who best knows the meaning of what is sweet in life and of what is terrible, and then goes out undeterred to meet what is to come.”
• “But the man who can most truly be accounted brave is he who best knows the meaning of what is sweet in life and what is terrible, and then goes out undeterred to meet what is to come.”
• “Our love of what is beautiful does not lead to extravagance; our love of the things of the mind does not make us soft.”

Guidelines for Comments to PD Posts

The comment should describe identifying characteristics for the document.  In other words, how will we know who, when, and where this document is from?

Comments should offer CONSTRUCTIVE feedback on the document analysis.  Specifically, describe any information that was missed in the initial post.

Format for Primary Document Posts

The TITLE for each post should be the TITLE of the document as seen on the source list.

Each post should be set up in the following format (including labels):

Author Bio:  Provide a brief biography of the author focusing on his/her bias.

Date/Context:  Describe the social & historical context of the document. (I.e. Where/how does this document fit into our understanding of history?)

Summary:  Summarize the document.  Be sure to identify the main idea and supporting details in your summary.

Key Quotation:  Select one phrase, sentence, or statement that epitomizes the document.

Reflection - "Western Civ. Cradle of Learning"

What is the main idea of this editorial?  What are the strengths of Bennett's argument?  What are the weaknesses of his argument?  Do you agree or disagree with Bennett?  Why?

Considering Primary Documents

Reflect on the use of primary documents in history.  For example:  When reading a document, what aspects should be considered?  Why is it important for historians to use primary documents?