Debate #3 Reflection

Was the Industrial Revolution a social, moral, and environmental disaster?  Be sure to use evidence from our studies and the debate.

Debate #2 Reflection

Do you believe Napoleon was a hero or a tyrant?  Be sure to support your opinion with evidence from our studies and the debate.

Debate #1 Reflection

Based on your studies and the debate, do you believe that the French Revolution was worth its human cost?  Be sure to support your opinion with specific historical evidence.

"The Duties of Man"

Author Bio: The author of "Duties," Giuseppe Mazzini, was an Italian author who wrote prolifically promoting the unification of Italy in the 1830s and 1840s. Mazzini was considered a liberal at the time for his nationalist ideas, but they nonetheless became important as Italy began merging into one united country by 1870. His works helped to lay the foundations for the liberal constitutional monarchy that would be established in unified Italy.

Context/Background:  During the 1800s, Italy and other European countries such as modern-day Germany were comprised of many small nation-states left over from the middle ages through the Renaissance and Enlightenment. As Europe grew into a more modern age, however, unification became an increasingly prominent idea that was propagated to the masses by advocates such as Mazzini in order to raise nationalism. These hopes for a united Italy finally came to fruition by 1870 through Count Camillo Cavour, whose efforts united the diverse regions and created the independent state of Italy.

Summary: While Mazzini first clarifies that a man's absolutely primary duty is to humanity and his family, the next and hardly less important duty is to his country and the brotherhood and unity focused towards the higher goal of a united country. He declares that united, independent countries are the highest order of nation, and what God originally intended before they were corrupted by greedy monarchs. The "Divine design" of unity will, Mazzini writes, transcend class and monarchy to unite all people of the country in harmony. The ideal nation would be one whose people are united by language, economic tendencies and specialties, culture, and history, and only when the people of a country are united together in brotherhood can this heavenly purpose be fulfilled.

Important Quote: "O my brother, love your Country! Our country is our Home, the house that God has given us, placing therein a numerous family that loves us, and whom we love... Our country is our common workshop, whence the products of our activity are sent forth for the benefit of the whole world."

The Communist Manifesto

Authors: Karl Marx (b. 1818- d. 1883) and Friedrich Engels (b. 1820- d. 1895). Marx was born in Germany and was educated at the University Berlin and University of Bohn. He is reputed for his work as a philosopher, economist, sociologist, historian, and journalist. He is considered one of the most influential economists of all time. Although Marx contributed prolifically to all of these disciplines, his most noted theory was on relationships between society, economics, and politics, called Marxism. In this ideology, Marx denounces Capitalism and predicts that it will eventually give way to a new structure in Socialism. In Marx’s socialist system the workers would rule in a “dictatorship of the proletariat” and would control everything. The final evolution of socialism was communism, a system devoid of social class wherein everything being equal. Friedrich Engels was also born in Germany. He was an openly active atheist and anarchist as a young man, and had to flee the country for sometime. He eventually returned, and was greatly influenced by the work of the great philosopher Georg Hegel. Deeply concerned with their son’s activities, Engels’ parents sent him to England. It was in England where Engels first met Karl Marx. Thus, began a lifelong friendship and co-authorship between the two men.

Context: Their most famous co-authored work the Communist Manifesto, was commissioned by the underground German communist league in 1848. The communist manifesto was originally a series of pamphlets written by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. Both used their knowledge and careful observation of factories in order to highlight the oppression of the worker. They wanted to change the way that economic systems, and by extension politics operated.

Summary: Marx and Engels open the passage with a brief overview of history and class struggle. They state that in every historical scenario the problem always arose between those that had power, and those that did not. They then note that the current power holder is the bourgeoisie. They assert that he workers, or the proletariat are only items in this grand capitalist scheme, and their only use is to work and die. In the factories the workers are organized into a hierarchy of labors and bosses, all answerable to the bourgeoisie. Marx and Engels advocate for workers unions to alleviate some of the miseries, sufferings, and injustices in the factories. Then Engels and Marx define that communist are for the proletariat as a whole, and fight for all of the workers movement. They argue that all other proletariat parties, including the communists wish to overthrow the middle class and abolish most private property. However, Communism targets the bourgeoisie and advocates abolishing all of their private property. Communists call for an overthrow of the government by the bourgeoisie and advocate for a state ruled by the working classes with ten steps. The ten steps are changes from capitalism starting with the abolition of private property, to state regaled “equality.” Communism will be achieved once everything as Marx and Engle stated was equal. With a chilling finale, both men call for the workers to rise up and forcibly implement this new system in government.

Quote: “The Communists disdain to conceal their views and aims. They openly declare that their ends can be attainted by only the forcible overthrow of all existing social conditions. Let the ruling classes tremble at a Communist revolution. The proletarians have nothing to lose but their chains. They have a world to win. Workers of the world, unite!”

"The People and the Fatherland" ~ Johann Gottlieb Fichte

Context: Johann Gottlieb Fichte delivered a series of addresses in 1807-1808 that disclose the frustration of German disunity and intense nationalism that erupted in the 19 century. Although Germany was not unified until 1871, many wanted the nation to be unified, and these people provided the idealistic and philosophical foundation for policies that were eventually seen as practical.

Author Bio: A German philosopher, Johann Gottlieb Fichte was one of the founding figures of the philosophical movement known as German idealism, which developed from the  writings of Immanuel Kant. He also wrote works of political philosophy and is considered one of the fathers of German nationalism.

Summary:  Fichte asserts that their oldest common ancestors set themselves bravely in opposition to the worldwide rule of the Romans, and believes that German's now faced with Napoleonic rule should do the same. Fichte asks, why would the German's just give up everything their ancestors fought for and succumb to the Napoleon and his tyrannical rule. He maintains that Germans should fight to be Germans, not the subjects of other, more powerful nations.

Key Quotations: "... a true German could wish to live only to and to remain a German, and to have his sons the same."

Reasons for Establishing the Empire

Context: On May 18, 1804 the Senate declared Napoleon Bonaparte supreme Emperor of France. At his Coronation, the Pope was present, but Napoleon crowned himself as Emperor asserting that the Pope did not have power over him. The piece is an address to the Senate recalling the reasons for establishing an empire in place of a Consulate.

  

Author Bio: Napoleon Bonaparte (August 15, 1769-May 5, 1821) was a military leader who rose to political power in France in the latter stages of the French Revolution. He was the first of three supreme Emperors of France. His major contributions include his civil code (called the Napoleonic Code) and his introduction to the Metric System to France.

Summary: The Document begins by stating how the State of France is strong. He then recalls the state of France prior to his power, in civil war and Anarchy. The Senate was then thanked for its support. He then talked about reform in the Government. He then calls his name the most unquestioned of titles. He concludes by swearing to Senate that if attacked, he will fight back.

Key Quotation: “The oath of Napoleon shall be forever the terror of the enemies of France” (141). 

The Fall of the Bastille PDP #5

Context: France was reaching a boil. The Clergy and the Nobles controlled the majority of the wealth, but they refused to invest any of it into the economy or country. Rather, the large estate of the Locals, who lived in poverty and famine, were expected to pick up the slack (go figure).

Author: Arthur Young was an English writer born in Suffolk. He began attempting agricultural experiments, but later went on journeys throughout England and France, writing about the various happenings. He mainly traveled France around the beginning of the French Revolution.

Summary: The people of France were upon the Bastille. The soldiers inside could either commit a murder-suicide with explosives, or allow the people to enter. Upon being promised a safe imprisonment, they opened the gates and let down the bridge. However, the enraged people murdered and humiliated the soldiers despite the efforts of those who promised them safety.

Key Quote: "The head of the Marquis de Launay was carried about Paris by this same populace that he would have crushed had he not been moved to pity."

On the Realities of Power (1796)

Author: (b.1769-d.1821)  Napoleon Bonaparte was a French military commander who took control of the government at the latter stages of the French revolution. He was born on the Island of Corsica in 1769. His first military successes came in North Africa and Western Asia Minor. Napoleon soon established himself as a reputable, popular general. He then used his military power to overthrow the neophyte, weak French government in 1799. He crowned himself “Holy Roman Emperor” in 1805 and reinstated Catholicism as the state religion. However, the irony lies in the fact that Napoleon, while possibly a good catholic, would not answer to the Roman Catholic Church as he took the crown from the hands of Pope Pius VII and crowned himself. As Emperor, Napoleon expanded borders of the French Empire with his conquests (the Napoleonic Wars), and looked as if he would successfully conquer all of Europe. However, in 1812 Napoleon made a fatal mistake in his attempt to invade Russia. His main army (The Grand Army) never fully recovered and was defeated by the sixth coalition composed of Austria, Prussia, Russia, the United Kingdom, Portugal, Sweden, Spain and a number of German States in 1813. Napoleon was exiled to Elba, but escaped on February 1815. He took control of France and began to muster an army. However, he was defeated at the battle of Waterloo that June. He was forced into exile on the British island, Saint Helena, where he lived until his death in 1821.

Context: The work is date at 1796. Napoleon had just recently come off a successful military campaign against the Sardinia, and the war of Verdee. He was beginning to build his reputation as a brilliant military commander, and was acquiring more power in the newly formed Jacobin government. Both of the Robespierre brothers were now under arrest (it is debatable whether Napoleon had a hand in their arrest). This document is taken from a conversation that Napoleon had with one of his confidants. It also shows Napoleon’s inherent ambition, and thirst for absolute power.

Summary: The excerpt has very distinct Machiavellian undertones. Initially, Napoleon mentions that it was never his ambition to establish a full fledged Republic in France. He says a republic, would never work as it could never encompass all the ideals and ambitions of every individual. Napoleon then states that he is the army, and the army retains key French characteristics. He then discreetly threatens the government in power by stating that he controls the army, and by all extension all the military power in France. Napoleon finally states that the government should preoccupy the people with ideas of liberty to distract them, while in reality impose a more dictatorial form of government; a very Machiavellian statement.

Quote: “They [the French people] will amuse themselves and allow themselves to be led, provided the goal is cleverly disguised.”

An End to the Woes of Anarchy

Author: Napoleon; 15 August 1769 – 5 May 1821 was a French military and political leader who rose to prominence during the latter stages of the French Revolution  and its associated wars in Europe. As Napoleon I, he was Emperor of France  from 1804 to 1815. His legal reform, the Napoleonic Code,  has been a major influence on many Civil  Law jurisdictions worldwide, but he is best remembered for his role in the wars led against France by a series of coalitions, the so-called Napoleonic Wars.

Context:A time after the French Revolution. A new Emperor took the throne after a war against the monarch. The revolution was fought for more say by the people and uneven taxing of the lower peasants.

Summary: Napoleon tells the people of Italy that since he came to the throne to determine the fate of all those people who formed the empire of France. He tells Italy that he is making it better and gave someone related to him to make it great.

Key of Quotation: "I have done away with the uncertainty in Italy by placing upon my head the crown of Iron...."

"The Legion of Honor (May 19, 1802)"

Author Bio: The author is Napoleon Bonaparte, who, while arguably dictatorial in his rise to power, instituted and advocated progressive programs as well as contributed to the stability and morale of the French state. It's interesting to not that despite these progressive programs, Napoleon's rise to power seemed to compromise the spirit of a free republic (contrary to his order that the legion defend equality and liberty...) 

Context/Background: "The Legion of Honor" was apart of Napoleon's Reforms and Institutions. It defined the legion and its duties to society. The legion was a group of honorable military veterans and citizens who had rendered important services to the state, either in war or in some sort of public service to the state. The members of the legion were to devote themselves to the service and defense (in war or legislation/public service) of the French Republic. In regards to time period, Napoleon is still in the middle of his rule, which did not end until 1821.  

Summary: Napoleon begins with the expectations places on each person admitted to the legion. They shall swear "upon their honor" to devote themselves to the service of the Republic, which includes: preserving the integrity of the territory of, defending the government and laws of the Republic, and to combat (within justice, reason, and the laws) every undertaking that would reestablish the feudal regime or title and qualities symbolic of the feudal regime. Foremost, they were to protect liberty and equality in the state. Napoleon then goes on to establish guidelines for eligibility into the legion. Military men who had received arms of honor or who had fought in the war for liberty were members of the legion. Citizens who had utilized either knowledge, talents, virtues to contribute to the establishment/defense of the principles of the Republic or gained love and respect for justice and the public administration were eligible for membership in the legion. Napoleon also allows for soldiers in peace time, saying that after twenty-five years of military service, the veteran could be appointed into the legion. In times of war, the years of service would count as double and each campaign they had served in of the previous war would count for 4 years each. Finally, the cases of great services rendered to the state in legislative functions, diplomacy, administration, and justice or the sciences would be titles for admission with the caveat that the person had made part of the national guard his home.

Key Quotation: "Each person admitted to the legion shall swear upon his honor to devote himself to the service of the Republic, to the preservation of its territory in its integrity, to the defense of its government, its laws and the properties which they have consecrated; to combat...every undertaking having a tendency to reestablish the feudal regime...lastly, to assist with all his power in the maintenance of liberty and equality."

The Indifferent Nobility

The Indifferent Nobility
Author Bio: Compte De Segur, also known as Louis Philippe was a French diplomat and historian. 
Ségur was born in Paris where he entered the army in 1769, served in the American War of Independence. Ségur took up a sympathetic attitude towards the Revolution at its outset and in 1791 was sent on a mission to Berlin, where he was badly received. After fighting a duel he was forced to leave Berlin, and went into early retirement.
Context: He did not believe that the people should be governed by an absolute ruler and fought against them.
Summary: This is a short writing on how Segur think that the ruling family is not as solid in their rule over him and his countrymen as they think.  He knew that soon they will fall and he will be there to see it. 
Quotes: "The heads of our noble family, believing themselves as unshakable as a monarchy, slept without fear upon a volcano."

The Tennis Cort Oath (June 20, 1789)

The Tennis Cort Oath

Author: The National Assebly

Author Bio and Context:
 Its members had been elected to represent the estates of the realm: the First Estate (the clergy), the Second Estate (the nobility) and the Third Estate (which, in theory, represented all of the commoners and, in practice, represented the bourgeoisie). The Third Estate had been granted "double representation" that is, twice as many delegates as each of the other estates.
Summary:
One day when the National Assebly of france as to meet they were shocked to discover the doors to their chamber locked and guarded by soldiers. Immediately fearing the worst the men congregated in the king's nearby indoor tennis court, where they took a solemn collective oath "never to separate, and to meet wherever circumstances demand, until the constitution of the kingdom is established and affirmed on solid foundations". The assebly pledged to continue to meet until a constitution had been written, despite the royal prohibition. 576 men signed the oath, with only one refusing. The oath was both a revolutionary act and an assertion that political authority derived from the people and their representatives, rather than from the monarch.
Quotes: "Decrees that all members of this assebly shall immediatly take a solemn oath not to seperate."

"Virtue and Terror" -- Maximlien Robespierre

Author Bio: Maximilien Robespierre was a lawyer and politician. He was one of the most known and influential figures of the French Revolution. He was a member of the Estates General, the Constituent Assembly and the Jacobins Club. Robespierre wished a republic would be established, the death penalty and slavery abolished and advocated for universal suffrage and equality. He was known as "the Incorruptible" but also known as a "bloodthirsty dictator" by his enemies and was also a member of the Public Committee for Safety during the Reign of Terror.

Context: This speech was given to the Convention on February 5, 1794. This was during the Reign of Terror that starred the guillotine. During the Terror, anyway suspected of being against the revolutionists were seen as enemies of France were sentenced to death. Robespierre uses this speech as justification for that type of barbarity.

Summary: Robespierre begins his speech by explaining what France and its people are trying to achieve: a prosperous republic of fully equally citizens who can respect their country without knowing horrors like they are experiencing now. He then explains the problems of France, the way everything good is substituted for something corrupt like morality for egoism, the rule of reason for the tyranny of custom and contempt of vice for contempt of misfortune. The people want to stop this terror and these vices and fulfill the duties of nature. He proclaims that only a republican or democratic type of government can achieve these great desires. Robespierre believes that the fundamental principle of a government of these types is virtue. He then goes on to say that in times of revolution, terror is necessary to inflict justice and restore order. He believes that to once again reach a virtuous government one must inflict terror to get rid of those who are disrupting order.

Key Quotation: "If the strength of popular government in peacetime is virtue, the strength of popular government in revolution is both virtue and terror; terror without virtue is disastrous, virtue without terror is powerless."
"Subdue the enemies of liberty through terror and you will right as founder of the Republic."

"Declaration of the Rights of Man"

Author Bio:  Marquis de Lafayette was born September 6th, 1757, he was a French aristocrat and military officer. While he was in the French army he refused to go to America. Furthermore he was a supporter of the imperial regime.


Date/Context: This speech was written during the 1700's and this declaration had served as a foreword to the French Revolution. The details included in the article had impaired the Old Regime and copied from the American Bill of Rights.


Summary: The French had gathered people and organized and assembly, certain that the ignorance of the rights was the mans' fault for public distress and downfall of the government. The had wanted to make the mans' right sacred, but for the right to continue on they all must continue on doing all there duties they must be doing at all times. Furthermore, in article one they had stated "Men are born and remain free and equal rights. Social distinctions may be founded only upon the general good." they are basically say that they would like to preserve the rights of the man. Their rights are liberty, property, security, and resistance to oppression. The law can only prohibit the man from something that may harm the society or the people around them. In addition a man cannot be arrested, accused etc unless the punishment is necessary, due to their actions. Men have many laws that are granted to them and can help them out in such ways as long as they do not go against anything and mess up their chances of have a happy free life.


Key Quotations: "Liberty consists in the freedom to do everything which injures no one else; hence the exercise of the natural rights of each man has no limits except those which assure to the other members of society the enjoyment of the same rights. These rights can only be determined by law."

"The Grievances of Carcassonne"

Author Bio: "Grievances" was a document drawn up by representatives from the Third Estate in Carcassonne, in Southern France. The exact individuals who organized the petition remain unknown, but the writer(s) most likely originated from the bourgeoisie and speak on behalf of all the people of the Third Estate in this region, addressing their wants and concerns regarding how France should be governed.

Context/Background: This text was most likely published in 1789, around the time of the Fall of the Bastille. The poor harvest of 1788 had pushed many farming peasants to the brink of desperation, and food riots in the countryside and cities broke out over exceedingly high prices of food and the inaction of the regrouping government. Representatives from the Third Estate, especially from among the bourgeoisie, were elected in preparation of the organization of the Estates-General, and among their initial work included the writing of numerous cahier de doleances, or lists of grievances against the government on behalf of the peasants and other members of the Third Estate. This text is an example of such a cahier de doleance, expressing the problems that the people of Carcassonne suffer and demanding change from the government.

Summary: With a tone of respect despite the forwardness of the demands, "The Grievances of Carcassonne" addresses many issues that the Third Estate views as critical for the future of France, including matters of religion, equality, and civil liberties. In the first point, the representatives request that the king ban all public worship that is not Roman Catholicism for the good of France, and to allow Protestants to hold public office and positions of administration but to restrict them from careers involving the judiciary, police force, or "public instruction," which were jobs more suited for French Catholics. The people call for greater equality and representation in government for all, including during taxes and laws being passed only through consent of the people and which would apply to all citizens, as well as regular meetings of the Estates General at which the Third Estate would be equally represented. Civil liberties are also requested for protection, including equal opportunities for jobs without preference to nobles, banning of arbitrary imprisonment, and freedom of the press, at least with regulations from "religion, morality, and public decency." The authors repeatedly implore King Louis XVI to understand that they bring these criticisms humbly and with only with the utmost regard for his reign, and that they desire for cooperation with the esteemed monarch to restore France to its former glory for the good of all Frenchmen.

Important Quote: "The third estate of the electoral district of Carcassonne very humbly petitions his Majesty to take into consideration these several matters, weigh them in his wisdom, and permit his people to enjoy, as soon as may be, fresh proofs of that benevolence which he has never ceased to exhibit towards them and which is dictated by his affection for them."

"Luxury, Debauchary, and Lavish Expenditure"

Author Bio: The author was the Marquis de Ferrieres, who, despite being a conservative noble, was a severe critic of the monarchy, the nobility, and revolutionaries.

Context/Background: The division of land and wealth among the people was highly unequal. 3% of the population (clergy and nobles) owned 45% of the land while the 97% was crammed onto the remaining 55%. de Ferriers, though a noble, is pointing out these unfair divisions as well as the distribution of power under a sort of spoils system. Though critical of the monarchy, nobility, and revolutionaries alike, the Marquis de Ferriers is in this case more critical of the monarchy and nobility.

Summary: The Marquis de Ferrieres is essentially writing a criticism towards the monarchy and nobility's handling of wealth, position, and power. He says that the population under each parish and their subsequent donations to the church do not always correlate to the salary of the priests. In some cases, there is a significant population, but the priest earns a meager salary. In other cases, the priest has a very tiny population he serves, or does not perform his duties, but gains an exorbitant portion for his salary. de Ferriers attributes this to the corrupt "spoils system" of the monarchy. In many cases, these religious leaders take the people's money and spend it on luxuries and "sinful" activities or things. de Ferriers further criticizes the monarchy for putting these men into these positions of power. The priests/bishops are not assigned their positions based on their abilities as religious leaders, but rather based on the amount of influence they have. As such, the number of honest priests and religious leaders is at a minimum and the people are left abandoned. The bishops that were appointed to their positions were in it for the money and power, but they found their actually duties distasteful and neglected the needs of the people. The French people were left with only a few obscure priests to cater to their religious needs while the appointed religious leaders and nobles wasted away massive amounts of land and wealth.


Key Quotation: "while in their neighborhood were benefices of ten and twelve thousand livres income, possessed of ecclesiastics who performed no function in the cult and who, residing elsewhere, carried away the revenue of these benefices, dissipating it in luxury, debauchery, and lavish expenditure..."

"Inasmuch as the appointment of bishops had been concentrated in the hands of the king, or rather in the hands of the ministers, too often the choice fell, not upon him who possessed the most apostolic virtues, but upon him whose family enjoyed the greatest influence." 

Reality Check: An Update on the Political Rights of Women (1793)

Context: In the middle of the revolution (1793), the Convention (official government) met to address a complaint concerning the impending dissolution of the Society of Revolutionary Republic Women.  The Committee of General Security raised two questions (1) Can women exercise political rights and take an active part in affairs of government?  (2) Can they deliberate together in political associations or popular societies? The Convention ultimately voted to outlaw "women's societies and popular clubs."

Author: This document has no author, it is simply an explanation for the decision made by the Convention. 

Summary: This article focuses on the Committee's investigation of the following questions: (1) Can women exercise political rights and take an active part in affairs of government?  (2) Can they deliberate together in political associations or popular societies?  For number one, they came to the conclusion can not not exercise political rights because women do not have the moral or physical strength to do so.  For the second question, they came to the conclusion that women cannot devote themselves to such time consuming things because they have to focus on their natural jobs.  The Committee concluded with explaining that the differences between men and women is the reason that women can not become involved with politics.  Women must remain loyal to their home and family life (their "natural" job), and should not "meddle in affairs of government."

Quotation: "What character is suitable for women?  Morals and even nature have assigned functions to her.  To begin education men, to prepare children's minds and hearts for public virtues, to direct them early in life towards good, to elevate their souls, to educate them in the political cult of liberty; such are the functions, after household cares...When they have fulfilled all of these obligations, they will have deserved well of the fatherland" (126).

The Indictment of Louis XVI

Context: This document was written during the French Revolution. The royal family tried to escape capture by traveling away from Paris with disguises and false passports, but was captured in Varennes. After being captured the King was disgraced and the monarchy as a whole was humiliated. After the attempted escape, things were tense, support for the royal family decreased, and finally the monarchy was abolished in September of 1792. Then, King Louis XVI was tried for treason and indicted on December 11, 1792.

Author: This is a court document, so the author is essentially the members of the National Assembly, the legislative and constitutional assembly in France that sat from September 20, 1792 to October 26, 1795. Clearly, there was some bias because the National Assembly despised all things pertaining to monarchy and therefore severely disliked Louis XVI, as well as his position of "King."

Summary: The French people (National Assembly) accuses Louis XVI of having committed many crimes in order to establish tyranny. Some of his actions include: suspending the assemblies and driving them away through violence, ordering the representatives to separate with military force, forcing an army to march against the citizens of Paris, escaping from Paris with a false passport, claiming to accept the constitution then working to overthrow it, bribery, allowing the French nation to be disgraced, and causing the blood of Frenchmen to flow.

Quotation: "Louis, the French people accuses you of having committed a multitude of crimes in order to establish your tyranny by destroying its liberty."

"Address to Parliment": King Victor Emmanuel

Author: Became the leader of Italy in 1870 when it became an independent state. he was also the former king of Piedmont. He was part of the house of savoy and was a big leader in the french revolution.

Context/Date: The year of this speech was 1871. The context of this time was the ending of the Enlightenment which encouraged and taught the middle and peasant classes that they should have a say in the world around them. These new beliefs lead to many revolutions but mostly the French Revolution.

Summary: The speech mostly outlines the problems that the newly independent state will face in the following years. The people have accomplished their independence and beginning the people back together after years of trial. But we cannot let our happiness pull us away from what we must do to maintain the greatness we have restored. We have created the separation of Church and state but we still recognize the higher authority. The main concern is on financial and economic affairs. We will only succeed by preserving the virtues. The most important thing is keeping the army enforced. We want to keep the political parties out of fighting. We must have an economic uproar which will be lead by the working class. Education is essential to succeeding as an independent nation. If we do all of these things we will prosper and become a very strong Italy!

Key Quote:
"After long Trials Italy is restored to herself and to Rome"
"A brilliant future opens before us"
"Economic and financial affairs, moreover, claim our most careful attention."

Beggars, Rags, and Misery by Arthur Young

Author Bio: Arthur Young was an English writer on agricultural subjects who traveled through France before and during the revolution. He described the condition of the people and the conduct of public affairs in France during this time.

Date/Context: This excerpt comes from Young's Travels in France During the Years 1781, 1788, 1789. Due to its dates, the source is reliable and provides accurate descriptions of the French condition during the revolution. Young personally lived the experiences described despite only being a visitor, but we nevertheless receive an accurate account of the conditions and life around the time of the revolution.

Summary: The first excerpt is from 1787. Here Young from the get-go describes the fields as "scenes of pitiable management" and the houses as if they were made out of misery. Young recognizes the potential in the land if only it were taken care of properly, but he realizes that those "glittering beings" in Versailles do not care about their "neglected" country. As he travels along, he sees as every citizen is without shoes or stockings, including the women and children. The misery he witnesses reminds him of the poverty in Ireland. The second excerpt is from 1788. Here Young continues his travels and describes the children as "if possible worse clad than if with no clothes at all." A little girl in rags smiles despite her unfortunate condition. In conclusion, Young asks how those in charge can possibly watch their people live in idleness and poverty. 

Key Quotation: " What have kings, and ministers, and parliaments, and states, to answer for their prejudices, seeing millions of hands that would be industrious, idle and starving, through the execrable maxims of despotism, or the equally detestable prejudices of a feudal nobility..." (108).

"What is Enlightenment?"

Author: Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) German philosopher recognized for his extensive study of knowledge, ethics, & aesthetics

Context:  Written in 1784, although Kant lived in Germany he was no doubt influenced by the Revolution in France.

Summary:  Seeks to "accept the rationalism of the Enlightenment while still preserving a belief in human freedom."  This particular document concisely describes the goals and ideas of the Enlightenment.

Quote:  "Dare to Know! Have courage to use your own reason!  - that is the motto of the enlightenment."

*Note to students - I intend to add more as a comment later but want to check all posts ASAP so you can prepare tomorrow's quiz.

"Politics and Scripture"

Author:  Jean Jacques Boussuet (1627-1704), bishop and tutor to the heirs of Louis XIV

Context:  As a participant in the royal household and bishop, Bousset enjoyed a privilege status in French society under the absolutist rule of Louis XIV (1642-1715).

Summary:  Written as a directive to Louis's successors, Politics Drawn from the Very Words of Scripture, succinctly lays out the divine right of kings theory.

Quote:  "Since their [kings] power comes from above...they should exercise it with fear and restraint, as a thing conferred on them by God, for which they are answerable to him."

"The Spirit of the Laws" - Baron de Montesquieu

Author Bio: Montesquieu was a "philosophe" during the Enlightenment that admired John Locke and focused much of his philosophy off of government. Born into a wealthy family, he had a substantial and thorough education and was able to travel all around Europe, observing government/political systems and making note of what he found as successful and good, as compared to "bad".

Context: The Spirit of the Laws was written in 1748 during a time of absolutists and enlightened thinking, so people were finally getting further from the mainstream focus on religion and began thinking and discussing new ideas (specifically during the Scientific Revolution and the Age of Reason). With all of this going on, many were beginning to resist against the monarchs and challenge absolutist rule.

Summary: In the text, Montesquieu examines the role of government and how it should be handled. He believes that it is absolutely necessary for there to be a separation of powers. More specifically, they should be split into 3 sectors: the legislative, executive, and judicial branches. (We obviously see this as a lasting effect as our U.S. government was modeled off of this). He notes that "most kingdoms of Europe enjoy a moderate government" and he blames this on the fact that the rulers, taking over the legislative and executive powers, then leave judicial powers to his subjects. He argues that no good comes out of all three branches being combined under one power, as seen in Turkey, where he notes that such a combination leads to oppression of the people.

Key Quotation: "The whole power is here united in one body; and though there is no external pomp that indicates a despotic sway, yet the people feel the effects of it in every moment."

On Universal Toleration

Context: The piece was written during the Enlightenment which was characterized by new reasoning, free thought, and going against tradition. All around there are scientific innovations, new branches of political thought, and interactions with the church.

Author: Voltaire was a talented poet, playwright, and other things. He is originally French but his deism and political satires force him to leave and go to London, where he fell in love with the political structure of England. He is a deist and strongly opposes organized religion, but supports toleration of all religions.

Summary: Voltaire starts out by stating the obvious: Christians ought to be able to tolerate one another. He basically compares us to ants and and satirically implies that it is wrong to say “my ant-hill is alone cherished by god.” His basic and most important message is that all men are brothers made by a Deity and we should all join together in peace, worship, and praise as opposed to hatred.

Quotes: “And if the scourge of war is not to be avoided, let us not mutually hate and destroy each other in the midst of peace; but rather make use of the few moments of our existence to join in praising, in a thousand different languages, from one extremity of the world to the other, Thy goodness, O all-merciful Creator, to whom we are indebted for that existence!” 

The Mortal God -- Thomas Hobbes

Author Bio: Thomas Hobbes' most famous work is called the Leviathan and the "Mortal God" is an excerpt from it. He was an English philosopher during the English Civil War and had strong ties with the aristocracy. His book laid the foundation for Western political philosophy based on the social contract theory.

Context: Leviathan was written during the English Civil War and in response to the conflict the book demonstrates a need for a strong central authority that would hinder evil discord and civil war, leading him to desire a government of a absolutist monarchy.

Summary: Hobbes opens by commenting on the nature of man; he believes that nature has made man equal and even though they have different talents when they are all together it does not really make a difference and all men have equal ability. He then laments on the three causes of quarrel: competition, insecurity and glory. Without a common power to make all men equal, men live in a time of war consisting of every man against every man. In this state there is no room for progress and the life of man is "solitary, poor, nasty, brutish and short". He then comes to his conclusion that the only solution to these problems is essentially an absolutist monarch who held sovereignty over his subjects. He also references the social contract theory where man gives up his rights to the government in hopes that the government will protect those rights.

Key Quotation: "I authorize and give up my right of governing myself, to this man, or to this assembly of men, on this condition  that you give up your right To him, and authorize all his actions in like manner. This done, the multitude so united in one person , is called, a COMMONWEALTH...This is the generation of the great LEVIATHAN, or rather, to speak more reverently  of that mortal god, to which we own under the immortal God, our peace and defense."

"And...this person, is called SOVEREIGN, and said to have sovereign power; and everyone besides, his SUBJECT."

"Science and the Bible: Letter to the Grand Duchess of Tuscany"

Author bio: Born February 15,  1564 in Pisa, Italy. He wanted to test the ideas posed by Copernicus, but lacked the proper instruments. One trip to Venice, he found that instrument, the telescope. He concluded many things including the texture of the moon and the phases of Venus. He also concluded that these ideas could not be supported by the accepted ethnocentric ideals of the day. The Catholic Church Inquisition tried him and found him guilty of believing false doctrine and put him under house arrest in 1632. He remained in partial isolation until his death on January 8 1642.

Date/Context: In the 17th century the Church found itself embedded in events that threatened it’s authority. The Catholic Church was in question for their doctrine concerning the astronomical position of Earth. .  

Summary: He begins his letter by attacking the Church saying they have a greater fondness for our own opinions than for facts. Then, he continues to explain his findings and his dislike for the ethnocentric ideal. Next, he introduces the Church’s argument of the Bible against his ideas. He finally asserts his belief in the bible and Concludes with his proclamation of the  belief in God and his creation.  

Key Quotations: “But I do feel obliged to believe that the same God who had endowed us with senses, reason, and intellect had intended to forgo their use” (45).

"Second Treatise of Civil Government"

Author Bio: John Locke (1632-1704)- English philosopher who helped to initiate the movement towards empirical thought and emphasized the significance of understanding the human mind and its abilities. Locke was one of the major figures in the Enlightenment movement, especially with regards to political philosophy and potential for reform. His great interest in human reason and rationality came to fruition in his work An Essay Concerning Human Understanding, which features the human fascination with knowledge and the road to gaining knowledge. Similar ideas such as the inherent value of humans and their entitlement are continued in the Second Treatise as well.

Date/Context: The Second Treatise of Government was published in 1690, as part of Locke's outline of his designs for the purpose of government as a social contract as discussed in the summary. This text proved revolutionary as a work of liberalism, which sought to limit the tyranny of especially the absolute monarchy at the time and grant all humans their inherent rights of life, liberty, and property. In the context of the late 17th and early 18th centuries, this work played a pivotal role in inciting the American and French Revolutions through its support of revolt if the government fails to provide for its people.

Summary: Locke divided this text into multiple key issues, which he discusses in turn. He begins with an outline of his idea of the state of nature in Chapter II: The State of Nature, in which all humans are inherently good and at one time existed in a state of complete freedom and independence. While this way of life is clearly the most free of all, it is also the most dangerous as the freedoms of some can infringe on the freedoms of others. Some basic systems of justice emerge, but not enough to ensure protection for all. In Chapter III: The State of War, Locke argues that any man has the right to defend himself against someone who seeks to subjugate them with absolute control, and that this war is just in that it defends the oppressed's liberties. He goes on to describe what the oppression looks like in Chapter IV: Of Slavery; he again reiterates that every man has the right to life, liberty, and property, and these are inherent rights that no man should be parted from. Locke continues in Chapter VIII: Of the Beginning of Political Societies, declaring that the only time a man should be deprived of his complete freedom is if he voluntarily gives it up in joining with other men to create a community, the beginnings of politics and government, for the protection of all. Chapter IX: Of the Ends of Political Society and Government expounds upon this by stating that, since so much danger exists in the state of nature, men are willing to give up some of their freedom in order to put a government into power that will guard and honor their rights and protect their property. In this way, all rulers are answerable to the people, and no ruler should ever assume total, absolute power over his people so that they are subjugated under his whims and desires, as outlined in Chapter XV: Of Despotic Power. Finally, in Chapter XIX: Of the Dissolution of Government, Locke again states that this government must be answerable to the people and functions to serve all the people. In perhaps the most radical aspect of this text, Locke calls upon the oppressed under absolute governments to rise up, overthrow their current government, and establish their own based on democracy and equality for all should the established government infringe on their rights as human beings.

Important Quotes: 
"Political power, then, I take to be a right of making laws with penalties of death... for the regulating and preserving of property, and of employing the force of the community, in the execution of such laws, and in the defense of the commonwealth from foreign injury; and all this for the good of the people."

"This freedom from absolute, arbitrary power, is so necessary to, and closely joined with a man's preservation, that he cannot part with it, but by what forfeits his preservation and life together."

"I Have Made a Beginning of the Work": Novum Organum (1620)

Author: The author of this piece is Sir Francis Bacon.  He was an English philosopher, statesman, scientist, jurist, and author who lived from 1561-1626.  He is credited with being an advocate of the scientific method through his very influential works.

Context: Sir Francis Bacon explains his struggles being a pioneer of a new way of thinking.  He also explains that he continued to work for the future generations.

Summary: Sir Francis Bacon is explaining that all of the hard work he did throughout his life was to give the future generations more guidance in his field then he had.  He wanted to pave the way for the thinkers of the future, even at the expense of the credibility of his name.  His main goal was to explain the failures of the artsy thinkers that came before him.  He is also explaining that men are thinking about nature the wrong way and it is a miracle that nature does not give into their incorrect assumptions.  He then goes on to explain that nature cannot be commanded, nature can only be obeyed.  Human Knowledge and human Power meet to become one and the ignorance it produces causes operations to fail.

Key Quotation: "I have made a beginning of the work-a beginning, as I hope, not unimportant..." (37).

"The Advancement of Learning

Author Bio: Sir Francis Bacon was the "father" of modern science and invented the reform I learning and the scientific method.

Context: The speech was made during the 1600 and went on to talk his idea of the reforms of learning.

Summary: Wrongly wresting and transferring what had been said I the Holy Writ against the one who pry into sacred mysteries if the hidden things if nature. Others reflect on the things in nature that are unknown.


Key Quotations: "Since the one displays the will of God, the other his power."

Vindication of the Rights of Women -- Mary Wollstonecraft

Author Bio: Mary Wollstonecraft is known as one of the first, if not the first, true feminist. She lived in England during the last half of the 18th century and was a large advocate for equality among the sexes. She was among the more radical thinkers of the time like Thomas Paine. The French Revolution was also a major event that shaped her views.

Context: Wollstonecraft enters in the latter part of the Age of Reason and some of her ideas were piggybacked off of previous philosophers like Jean-Jacques Rousseau. Mary published this work to declare a war on inequality among the sexes. She believed that if there was no scientific evidence to back up that men had a higher capacity to reason than women, than men were not entitled to rule over women.

Summary: Wollstonecraft begins by lamenting on the lack of positions that women can fill outside of the home. A woman can become a teacher or a governess but she is still not treated as a highly educated being. She believes that if women had more opportunities to support themselves then they might not have to marry solely for financial reasons nor would they have to enter into prostitution to survive. She comments that if men would "snap our chains" then women would be better citizens in general. She believes that women may have different duties to fulfill than men but they are still human duties so they must be equal to men. Overall, Wollstonecraft believed that women could not progress and change their place in society unless they were granted equality.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      

Key Quotation: "There must be more equality established in society, or morality will never gain ground, and this virtuous equality will not rest firmly even when founded on a rock, if one half of mankind be chained to its bottom by fate, for they will be continually undermining it though ignorance or pride."

"The Wealth of Nations" ~ Adam Smith

Author: Adam Smith was Scotsman from Kirkcaldy, born on June 5, 1723. The father of political economy, Smith was a true enlightened thinker and a well liked educator and philosopher, and he was a key figure in the Scottish Enlightenment. Smith was educated in moral philosophy at the University of Glasgow, being one of the first students to benefits from scholarship funds. Eventually, Smith's lectures became so popular that he was appointed a professor of moral philosophy at the University of Glasgow in 1751. Smith also spent a decent amount of time travelling Europe with the third duke of Buccleuch.

Context: Written over 10 years and published in 1776. "The Wealth of Nations" was written during the height of the Enlightenment in Europe, a time of philosophy and changing ideals on the continent.

Summary:
Human Nature and the Division of Labor: In this section, Smith asserts that men need to become more independent. He states that men should stop relying on each other for advantages and lead a more independent life. He also states that it is good to support local butchers, brewers and bakers, but that it should be more for their own regard than for their advantages.
The Invisible Hand: In this section Smith states that each man, by ensuring his own gain, is "led by an invisible hand to promote an end which was no part of his intention."
Unreasonableness of Restraints: Smith states that competition among nations in regards to economy and trade is not good for the nations. He feels that it would be better to rid nations of corrupt leaders and have all notions get along. He feels that this peace would make trading easier and bring increased prosperity to nations.

Key Quote:
"It is not from the benevolence of the butcher, the brewer or the baker, that we expect our dinner, but from the regard of their own interest."
"This very competition, however, is advantageous to the great body of the people, who profit greatly besides by the good market in which the great expense of such a nation affords them in every other way ...."

On the Movement of the Earth- Copernicus

Author: Copernicus was a polish astronomer that constantly tried to prove heliocentric ideals by showing that the sun is the middle of the solar system not the earth. He is known as the father of modern astronomy.

Date/Context: 1543 is the date.  This is smack dab in between the period of the scientific revolution and the Enlightenment. These periods focused on reason and rationality. They were both intellectual advancements that developed the structure of European society.

Summary: When i say my beliefs the world and Christians will believe me to be against the holy father and will boo me off the stage. but i had a desire to know the motion of the planets with no prior knowledge besides that of previous mathematicians. Even those mathematicians are unsure of the motions which makes it so they cannot be studied or observed. They also use differing principals to related the sun and the moon to the other planets. it is believed that the symmetry of the solar system cannot be changed. I wondered if the math was irrelevant to the truth and led myself to philosophical beliefs in which i had forgotten and looked back through time after time. But after my studies i came to the overall conclusion that will polarities and such that the world is centralized around the sun other then the moon which has been so long an incorrect belief.

Important Quotes:
- Philosophers that by no means could agree on any one certain theory.
- "become so bound together that nothing thereof could be moved from its place."

"I Think, Therefore I Am"

Author: Rene Descartes (1596-1650). He was born in France, but lived out the end of his life in Holland. Although Descartes is most noted for his mathematical application to philosophy, he also had a Jesuit education, graduated with a law degree from Poitiers, and spent some time as a soldier. He was also a mathematical genius, developed the Cartesian coordinate system and analytic geometry, which were crucial to the development Calculus. Arguably, his most notable achievements were in rational philosophy. He is dubbed as “the Father of Modern Philosophy.”

Context: It was on one of his military tours in a German town, where Descartes claims he “uncovered” the mathematical rationale of the human mind as granted by Almighty God. He developed the process of reasoning and application; analyzing specific information based on general information. He subsequently published his masterpiece, Discourse on the Method of Rightly Conducting the Reason. “I think, therefore I am” is an excerpt taken from this work.

Summary: “I think, therefore I am” is a discourse on the mind, the rational world, and the nature of thought. Descartes first highlights four principles key to rationale thought. The first rule; never innocently accept anything as truth. The second principle; break down observation into the smallest components possible. The third rule; begin reason with the most easily comprehensible components. The last principle; to employ this process in all intellectual encounters. Descartes then contemplates his own existence. He determines that since he can think, he must exist, “I think, therefore I am.” However, in reflection to his own being, Descartes analyzes himself to be slightly imperfect. He concludes that his existence, regardless of its imperfections, must be granted by a higher power. Thus, Descartes rationally proves the existence of God. He states that Reason and question are the foremost principles that should govern all thought. Descartes concludes with his decision that all truth must stem from God.

Quote: “I who thought, must of necessity [exist]; and remarking that this truth, I think, therefore I am, was so firm… that I could unhesitatingly accept it as the first principle of the philosophy I was seeking….”