Economic Regulation

Author: Sir William Keith (1699- 1749). Keith was born into Scottish nobility. As the eldest son, William Keith was supposed to inherit his father’s title as baron. However, Keith was exiled from Great Britain for his treasonous sympathies and possible involvement with the Jacobites (see footnote). Keith ventured to the Americas and, under the rule of the Tories, became surveyor-general for the southern district of North America. He lost his post when the Whigs came into power under George I. Keith subsequently applied and was accepted as Lieutenant-Governor of Pennsylvania. Keith was known for promoting Indian peace conferences and Trade. After William Penn died, Penn’s wife and Keith disputed over the direction of the colony. William Keith’s father died in 1720, leaving Keith with a title and massive debt. This debt, along with pressures of Penn’s Wife and her supporters forced Keith to flee to England. On his voyage back to Brittan, he wrote "A Short Discourse on the Present State of the Colonies in America with respect to the Interest of Great Britain," where he proposed a stamp tax on the colonists in order to finance standing armies in North America. He served as an advisor of American Affairs to the British Crown. He died in a debtor’s prison.

Context: There was no italicized summary, nor were there any reference sources that gave me a good context on this work. However, “Economic Regulation” is dated 1740. Thus, I can generally surmise that Keith was back in England, near the end of his life. He was in debt, and bitter (his family was still in Pennsylvania). This probably was written as an economic advisory to the Crown. His bias would probably be in favor of the Crown (as his job depended on it) and bitter to the Americas.

Summary: Keith first states that the principal goal of colonies (such as America) is to serve the Mother Country to her best interests, especially her economic interests. Keith then proposes to tip the British-Colonial American trade relations in Britain’s favor. He lists four advisory points to back up his proposition. The first, a mandate that all American manufactured goods had to come through British ports before traveling anywhere else. Second, that the colonies could only purchase wool from GB and Ireland. The third, a mandate that all American commodities must come through British ports before traveling anywhere else. The last, a restriction of inter-colonial trade. Keith states that his mandate will bring further prosperity to the nation. He also argues that colonials know their place and will humbly accept GB mandates. Ironically, Keith is completely incorrect as this mandate lays the foundations of colonial discontent, eventually inciting the American Revolution.

Quote: “Every act of a dependent provincial government therefore ought to terminate in the advantage of the mother state, unto it owes its being and by and whom it is protected in all its protected in all its valuable privileges…”

*A Jacobite is a person wishes to restore the British crown to James II of England (a Stuart) 

The Efficiency of the Domestic Economy

The Efficiency of the Domestic Economy 1664

Context: This was written in 1664 on trading.  It is a letter to the town Marseilles to encourage trade.  He wants to improve his own country's economy with the help of others.

Author: The author of this letter is King Louis XIV of France.  This was written towards the beginning of his rein which lasted from 1643 to 1716.  This type of letter was very typical from Louis XIV.

Summarize: This is a letter to the town of Marseilles from King Louis XIV to explain how their foreign and domestic commerce.  They decided to create a council that is devoted to commerce for the revival.  The plan was to set aside livres to be used for manufactures and navigation each year to support the companies of the East and West Indies.  They are working to abolish tolls collected on rivers and give money to repair highways.  Merchants and sea traders will receive subsides for each ton of merchandise they import or export.  He explains that he wants the men of Marseilles to participate in commerce.

Quotation: "How advantageous it would be to this realm to reestablish its foreign and domestic commerce" (508).

The Edict of Nantes

Author: After he came to the throne in 1589, Henry IV of France was one of the most popular French kings, both while he was ruling and still to this day. He was baptized Catholic and the converted to the Huguenot faith. He was very involved in the French Wars of Religion and barely escaped death at the St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre. Clearly, he may have some bias towards protestants since he himself converted to Protestantism, but he believed that political stability could only be achieved through religious toleration.

Context: This document was one of Henry IV's first acts of reconciliation, offering Huguenots partial religious freedom within officially Catholic France. The edict produced a "cold war," as it were, between the many religious factions within France. During this time, the Thirty Years War was going on in Europe and there was much hatred and distrust between Protestants and Catholics.

Summary: Basically, this document permits those of the "so-called Reformed Religion" to live in all the districts of France without any backlash from the Catholic people provided that they follow the terms set forth within the Edict. The Edict permits the Huguenots to practice their religion in all the towns and districts of France, but forbids them to practice in "our court and suite, in our domains beyond the mountains, in our city of Paris, or within five leagues thereof."

Key Quotation:
"We permit those of the so-called Reformed Religion to live and abide in all the towns and districts of this our Realm...free from inquisition, molestation, or compulsion to do anything in the way of Religion, against their conscience...provided that hey observe the provisions of this Edict..."

"The Abdication of Charles V"

Author Bio: Charles V, King of Spain and Holy Roman Emperor, ruled from 1516 to 1556 and was apart of several monarchal or noble families in Germany, Italy, Spain, Austria, etc. As Holy Roman Emperor, he had a strong Catholic bias and a significant amount of power throughout the European countries. He was Holy Roman Emperor during the time period when several German princes left the Church and he promoted the Council of Trent and the Counter-Reformation.  

Context: Having grown old and disillusioned, Charles V decides to step down from the throne and, feeling that his son has matured enough, passes on the Spanish throne to Philip. He had previously tried to enforce compromise agreements between Catholics and Protestants, but when discussions broke down he tried a more militant approach. Unable to dislodge Protestant Much of his disillusionment stemmed from his failure to quell the Protestant Reformation and its leaders (especially in Germany). As Holy Roman Emperor, he made it his goal to protect the Catholic faith. It is important to note, though, that despite this disillusionment, Charles V is secure in his abdication and cites his failing health and inability to fulfill his responsibilities as Emperor as his reason for abdication.

Summary: Charles V states that when he inherited his title and throne from his grandfather, Maximilian, he had no desire to rule many kingdoms, but instead to protect Catholicism within the kingdom (essentially the spiritual well-being of the countries). However, in cases like Germany and the Protestant Reformation, he failed to do so or do enough. He laments the fact that he could not spread the Christian religion further, for all his zeal and passion for the cause. Charles V primarily blames the "heresies" of Martin Luther and other such innovators of Germany, whose messages eventually led to conflict. He says that he had been considering abdicating for some time, but that the immaturity of his son and the incapacity of his mother previously prevented him from doing so. Now, believing his son Philip to be an able ruler, he states that he will return to Spain to live out the remainder of his life. He advises his son to respect and take the advice of his uncle, who will succeed Charles V as Holy Roman Emperor (Philip would become the new king of Spain). Finally, Charles V states that he is at peace with his victories and defeats as he did all he could and left it to God to deem him victorious or not. In conclusion, Charles V advises watchfulness so as to prevent the spread of the Protestant sects into other countries.

Key Quotation: "I have carried out what God has permitted, since the outcome of our efforts depends upon the will of God. We human beings act according to our powers, our strength, our spirit, and God awards the victory and permits defeat. I have ever done as I was able, and God has aided me. I return to Him boundless thanks for having succored me in my greatest trials and in all my dangers."

Principles of Analysis- Induction and God: Optics

Author: Sir Issac Newton
He was an English physicist and mathematician, arguably the most influential scientist of the scientific revolution. Newton also made seminal contributions to optics and shared credit for creating the math of calculus. He also created formulated the law of motion and universal gravitation.

Context: The time this was written was the time of the scientific revolution. This was characterized by the change of beliefs and changes of thoughts. This led to the advancements of using science, and reason to answer questions rather than use religion.

Summary: Issac Newton start out by describing matter and the idea that God created this matter impenetrable moveable particles. He describes the first creation in which all of these particles were made and consolidated. He  discusses how no matter how these objects were created no amount of chaos could have resulted the the calm solar system. He says that God and the Principles of motion were the cause for this and not yet known. He compares this to the perfect uniformity of an animal bodies. He also touches upon the idea that matter have different densities and forces. He then tells how people must analyse using experiments and observation to understand the universe.

Quote: "This Analysis consists in making Experiments and Observations, and in drawing general Conclusions from them by Induction, and admitting of no Objections against the Conclusions, but such as are taken from Experiments, or other certain Truths."

The Revocation of the Edict od Nantes (1685)

Author: King Louis XIV
He was also known as Louis the Great and ruled as King of France.  Louis XIV came into power upon the death of Cardinal Mazarin in 1661. He made it his personal mission to answer the loud cry of his nation's desire for peace and order. He reduced France's dependence on foreign goods and increased the export trade so that the bulk of the country's money stayed in France
King Louis of France was a very ambitious and intelligent man. During his reign, he conquered many lands including Ghent, Duchy of Brabant, and some of the Spanish Netherlands.  He did not tolerate any religion other than that of the Roman Catholic Church and made sure that his wishes were enforced by expelling Jews, destroying Protestant schools, and having babies forcibly baptized as Roman Catholic.

Context:Louis XIV  annulled the Edict of Nantes, which had provided some freedoms for french Protestants or Huguenots. Louis XIV did not want to allow Protestants to practice their faith in his Catholic France. Perhaps he was motivated by religion, but it is more likely that Louis felt that the existence of this minority undermined his own political authority. His anti-Protestant policy, aimed at converting the Huguenots to Catholicism.

Summary:The revocation of the Edict of Nantes is stripping Huguenots of the right they were given when the Edict was in place. Some of the rights that are taken away from them are the right of assembly and the right to practice their religion in their homes. This revocation also states that anyone who does not follow these new laws will be asked to leave France or any territory that France owned.  The protestants could also not have private school for their children that taught their religion.  

Quote: “We enjoin all ministers of said [Reformed religion], who do not choose to become converts and to embrace the Catholic, apostolic, and Roman religion, to leave out kingdom and the territories subject to us within a fortnight of the publication of our present edict...on pain of being sent to the gallows...”

"The Sighs of Enslaved France" Pierre Jurieu

Author: The author cannot be positively identified, but it is widely excepted that Pierre Jurieu wrote these memoirs. Jurieu was a Calvinist pastor sent to exile in Holland, and his "memoirs are among the most provocative because they characterize Louis's absolutism" in France during the time period. Angry men sent into exile were among some of Louis's strongest critics, and Jurieu was no exception.

Context: Published in 1690, "The Sighs of Enslaved France" was written during a time of the Bourbon's family absolute monarchy and absolutism rule. Citizens were not treated fairly, the country was engaging in multiple battles and France was issuing a high tax on the majority of their citizens. The Edict of Nantes had been revoked before this document was published and the Huguenots were being punished to full extent again.

Summary:
Jurieu is commenting on the exorbitant taxes in France and the effects those taxes are having on the average citizen of the time. It is established that the unfair and extreme taxes are not being used properly and that the King is taking advantage of his power. Jurieu is demanding that a change happen within France and that the citizens stop allowing the tyrannical government take all their money. Jurieu also states that the country is spending too much money on trivial things which has led to money problems for the country.

Key Quote
"It will suffice to enable you to understand the horrible oppression of these taxes by showing (1) the immense sums that are collected, (2) the violence and abuses that are committed in levying them, (3) the bad use that is made of them, and (4) the misery to which the people are reduced."

The Supremacy Act (1534)

Note:  This document was NOT assigned as a primary document source to be analyzed by students!

Issued by Henry VIII, this document marks England's official break with the Catholic Church.  Although Henry had already force most English church leaders to renounce the authority of the pope, this document makes the monarch the head of the newly formed Church of England.  Failure to recognize the king as the rightful head of the Church of England was treason and could be punished by death.

Quote: "Albeit the king's majesty firstly and rightfully is and ought to be the supreme head of the Church of England, and so is recognized by the clergy of this realm in their convocations."

R&R Article Summary

A Woman's Place? Learning And The Wives Of Henry VIII
By: Marcia Dowling

Citation: 
Dowling, Marcia. "A Woman's Place? Learning And The Wives Of Henry VIII. (Cover 

Story)." History Today 41.6 (1991): 38. MasterFILE Premier. Web. 12 Feb. 2013.

Summary:
This article examines the the contributions of three of King Henry VIII wives on Modern Society. It especially focuses on Catherine of Aragon and her patronage of the Humanist Movement and was praised by St. Thomas More for it. It also focuses on  Anne Boleyn’s ideas on French Humanism. Finally, it focused on Catherine Parr’s academic background following her ascension to the throne.    

"R&R Article Summary"

Citation:
Tracy, James D. "Believers, Non-Believers, and the Historian's Unspoken Assumptions." The Catholic Historical Review 86.3 (2000): 403-19. Project Muse. Web. 12 Feb. 2013.

Summary: This article focuses on historians of the Reformation and the struggle of presenting a scientific, unbiased account of events. Tracy is saying that it is practically impossible for historians to provided unbiased accounts due to their own belief system. In some way or another, that belief system does influence them and their writings. For example, a Catholic historian may place the Catholic side of the European Reformation in a more positive light- for instance, Ignatius of Loyola and the Counter-Reformation. At the same time, a Protestant historian may place the Protestant reforms on a pedestal while neglecting other arguments and sides to the story. While this may not be intentional, it is nonetheless inevitable. Tracy is making the point that historians in general, and then specifically in the case of the European Reformation, cannot avoid some form of bias or misconstruction of these sensitive historical accounts. 

R&R Article Summary

Mullett, Michael. "Martin Luther's Ninety-Five Theses." History Today 2003: n.
    pag. History Today. Web. 12 Feb. 2013.

Martin Luther's Ninety-Five Theses
Michael Mullet

The article's main focus is on Martin Luther and the 95 Theses. The author's intention is to explain the role the the Martin Luther's 95 Theses had on the Lutheran or Protestant Reformation. Michael Mullett comments on the possible psychological implication Luther's parents had on his life and how Luther went into priesthood against his father's wishes to become lawyer. Mullett then goes on to tell of the origins of the document and how the drama that unfolded after it was nailed to the door was recorded. Another leading man in the reformation, Phillip Melachthon, first recorded Luther's actions and the reasons why the reformer felt it mandatory to protest the indulgences. Melachthon also transcribed the role of God in the entire reformation and his influence on Luther. Next comes that actual content of the document and Mullett goes through the different points of Luther's argument. Finally, he concludes with Luther's theology in 1517 and how he his stance when he nailed the 95 Theses was very far from the Protestant leader he would later come to be.

R&R Article summary

Kevin Uhalde. "Pope Leo I on Power and Failure." The Catholic Historical Review 95.4 (2009): 671-688. Project MUSE. Web. 12 Feb. 2013.<http://muse.jhu.edu/>.

This article delves into the ideology of Pope Leo, a Pope known for his strong authority and also his brilliance as a Pastor. The first section of the article records Leo’s claim to supreme power as a biblical descendant of Peter. The second part of this article breaks down Leo’s preached differences between Peter and Judas. The crux of Leo’s argument is centered on the idea of repentance. Both Peter and Judas disobey the Christ, however, Peter feels deep remorse and repents, thereby strengthening his bond with Jesus. Judas desperately looking for a way around God, does not, and consequently hangs himself. Thus, this article provides an interesting look at Pope Leo’s views on penance and justice. This article is interesting to the renaissance because while it does assert papal supremacy, he also highlights man’s ability to interpret biblical text in many different ways.  

R&R Article Summary

Citation: Wooding, Lucy. "Christian Humanism: From Renaissance to Reformation." History Today. 2009. 12 Feb. 2013. <http://www.historytoday.com/lucy-wooding/christian-humanism-renaissance-reformation>.

Summary: The article discusses the role of Christian humanism during the Renaissance and through the Reformation. Ms. Wooding cites numerous leaders during this time and their influences in this field, including Desiderius Erasmus and Martin Luther, and their differences in approach to this issue. She traces the role of Christian humanism through its rise during the Renaissance and then its fruition and popularization during the Protestant Reformation, describing the influences of this topic on the society and religious arenas of the time.

R&R Article Summary

Article: MACHIAVELLI, LEONARDO & BORGIA A FATEFUL COLLISION.
 

Citation:
Strathern, Paul. "Machiavelli, Leonardo & Borgia A Fateful Collusion." History Today 59.3 (2009): 15.MasterFILE Premier. Web. 12 Feb. 2013.

This article focuses on 1512. In 1512 Cesare Borgia, a military man, Leonardo da Vinci, an inventor, and Niccolo Machiavelli, a politician, met. Borgia's military campaign to conquer northeastern Italy made it possible for these three intelligent men to meet. Borgia hired da Vinci as a military engineer and Machiavelli was sent by the government of Florence to spy on Borgia. The article talks of the interactions of the three men and reveals their personalities through their interactions and actions. This article was really interesting because it studied three powerful men from the sixteenth century that we usually don’t learn about as a trio. These men are compared and contrasted in the form of the story and through this the read sees the strength and weaknesses of each man.

R&R Article Summary

Citation: Tracy, James D. "Believers, Non-Believers, and the Historian's Unspoken Assumptions." Catholic Historical Review. 3 July 2000: 403-419. 11 Feb. 2013. <http://muse.jhu.edu/login?auth=0&type=summary&url=/journals/catholic_historical_review/v086/86.3tracy.pdf>.

Summary: The article explores the role of religion in university life and professors. The author further explores the question of whether religion affects historians and concludes that "belief or non-belief" does make a difference. Religion does take a part in how historians relay events, not even purposefully, but just naturally. Tracy studies historians' objectivity and how reliable they can therefore be considered.

Precepts of Power

Author: Niccolò Machiavelli

 

Context: Niccolò Machiavelli was a Florentine citizen who lived from (1469-1527). He devoted his life to public service. Machiavelli despised the self-imposed autocracy of the Medici family, and favored a more republican form of government. Under Girolamo Savonarola, the Florentine citizens overthrew Medici power. However, Savonarola established a theocracy in the wake of the Medici rule. The people established a true republic after Savonarola’s fall from power in 1498. Machiavelli took a role in this new government, and became the Florentine ambassador to France. Here, Machiavelli learned vital information about power that would come to play a role in his later writings. The Florentine Republic was successful until a Spanish mercenary army defeated the Florentine trained militia in 1512. The Medici’s reacquired power and subsequently tortured and jailed Machiavelli for some time. Machiavelli eventually retired to the countryside, where he wrote The Prince in order to win back the Medici’s favor. The Prince is a handbook of power, and what it takes to acquire, preserve, and lose power. In the Prince, Machiavelli, unfolds callously honest truths about human nature and the means needed to retain power. When it was published, the book’s ideas horrified the gentry and common citizen alike. Nonetheless, Machiavelli’s work is a cornerstone in the methods for power struggle of the Western world, as Adolf Hitler and members of our republican government have used it.

 

Summary: Throughout the course of his advice, Machiavelli distances himself from traditional precepts of morality/god/good and chooses, in turn, to solely examine success/effectiveness. He debates whether a prince should use fear or love to remain in power. Machiavelli chooses fear, and highlights it effectiveness through several examples of human weakness. Machiavelli also gives his opinion of human nature in that humans will only further their own ends. He also discusses the differences between appearance and action, and that a good ruler will appear for the people, but will really promote his own means.

 

Quote: “Let a prince therefore act to seize and to maintain the state; his methods will always be judged honorable and will be praised by all; for ordinary people are always deceived by appearances and by the outcome of a thing; and in the world there is nothing but ordinary people…” 

"The Profession of Faith"

Author Bio: Henry was a translator and author. His noble works consist if translations of Agustines city of god. Also his Christian documents were written to form an angelic perspective.

Date/Context: this speech was giving in the 1900s focusing on the translations of his text to bring a magnificent picture to the minds of the audience.

Summary: God is offered to anyone willing to put fourth the effort of believing, the power of indulgences in left for Christ and the church. Also doubting the traditions, definition and declarations is not allowed.

Key Quotes: " I hole unswervingly that there is purgatory and that the souls there detained are helped by the intercession of the faithful."

" I recognize the Holy Catholic and Apostolic Roman church as the mother and mistress of all churches."

"Spiritual Exercises" by St. Ignatius of Loyola

Author Bio:
St. Ignatius of Loyola was a soldier who, while recovering from wounds, converted to Catholicism. Founded the Society of Jesus or Jesuits in 1540 under the approval of Pope Paul III. Under Loyola's Firm Leadership, the Jesuit society became very disciplined in serving the Holy Father.    

Context:
In response to the Protestant Reformation, the Catholics developed their own Reformation to reform from within. Many religious groups developed during the 16th and 17th century. The most dominant was the Society of Jesus founded by St. Ignatius of Loyola. The Jesuits considered themselves as an elite army of the Catholic reform. They were highly educated people sent around the world in the service of Religion.    

Summary:
This document outlines the spiritual regulations of the Jesuits. The regulations include obedience to Christ and participate in Confession and the Holy Eucharist. Some also included upholding their final vows of poverty, chastity, and obedience. It also stresses the importance of prayer and participating in spiritual exercises. Finally, Loyola expresses the importance to carry out the mission of the Jesuits, to serve the Church of Christ.

Quote:
“To be eager to commend the decrees, mandates, traditions, rites, and conduct; although there may not always be the uprightness of conduct” (451).  

"Scholarship and Art: Leon Battista Alberti" - Giorgio Vasari

Author Bio: Though the ideas are those of Leon Battista Alberti, the article is by Giorgio Vasari. Vasari was an Italian painter, architect, and writer best known for his biographies of Italian Renaissance artists. Vasari trained in Florence and had both the friendship and patronage of the Medici family. He is known to have obvious bias towards Italian arts and when facts were scarce, to have occasionally filled in the blanks with questionable accuracy. Despite this, Vasari's work represents the first major and highly influential example of modern historiography.

Context: Vasari first shares Alberti's ideas on scholarship and art and then goes on to reflect back on how Alberti exemplified his ideas. Vasari lived from 1511-1572. Alberti  lived from 1404-1472 and was a humanist, architect, and the principal initiator of Renaissance art theory. He is considered to have been the closest to being a "universal man" before Leonardo DaVinci for his deep involvement in both the arts and the sciences. In this excerpt, Vasari reflects Alberti's ideas that science and learning is essential for one to have advantages, especially for the artist. The unity and execution of science in art, he believed, was paramount to success. This makes sense, for, as an architect, he used the concepts of science in order to better his artistic endeavors.

Summary: Vasari begins by using the words of Leon Battista Alberti. Alberti says that knowledge of the sciences and education are of great advantage to everyone, but especially artists. The sciences provide the knowledge needed in order to perfect creations of the painter, the sculptor, and the architect.   Furthermore, being a "learned man" or a man of science gives the artist far more credit than he would have on his own. By being educated, the scholar and the artist have much more clout in the community and when they put their knowledge to practice, they are much more likely to be believed, accepted, and accredited.
Vasari then inserts his own commentary. He says that this idea of combining science/education and art is no better personified that in Alberti. Alberti studied Latin and science as well as architecture, perspective, and painting. He wrote several books that increased his fame and reputation. Vasari says that there were most likely far more artistically talented men than Alberti, but that it was the fact that he was educated and wrote such strong, eloquent books that sets him above many others. As a result, Alberti is known for his writings and subsequently his artistic works, rather than the other way around.

Key Quotation: "But when theory and practice chance to be happily united in the same person, nothing can be more suitable to the life and vocation of artists, as because art is rendered much richer and more perfect by the aid of science..."

"A Tribute to Petrarch"

Author Bio: Leonardo Bruni (c. 1370-1444)- Italian "civic humanist" dedicated to both study of the classics and service to one's city-state, Bruni wrote extensively about the famous classical figures and values. His most famous work is History of the Florentine People, but he was also an excellent scholar in translating works of Plato, Aristotle, and Demosthenes into Latin, recording accounts of the lives of Petrarch and Dante, and serving as chancellor of Florence. Bruni obviously not only greatly admired Petrarch, classical thinkers, and their work, but also embraced many of the same humanist values as these subjects.

Date/Context: This tribute was written in 1436, about sixty years after Petrarch's death, still in the time period of the early Renaissance. The text was written with the intention of eulogizing Petrarch's life, at a time when the Renaissance was gaining momentum and humanist ideals were again coming to the forefront of intellectual discussion. "A Tribute to Petrarch" is an excerpt from Bruni's work, "Petrarca and the Art of Poetry."

Summary: Bruni opens with a description of the glories of the Latin language, including its significance at the time of Cicero, a classical writer, and its eventual decline. Bruni attributes its resurrection, along with the resurrection of humanist ideals, to Petrarch. Through diligent and humble study, Petrarch was able to emulate the classical style as it had appeared, especially in Cicero's works, and help to make it more accessible to those who would follow him. Bruni goes on to extol Petrarch's gifts in both poetry and prose, an unusual combination that set him apart from other famous writers of his day and in classical times.

Important Quote:
"Francisco Petrarch was the first who had such grace of talent, and who recognized and restored to light the ancient elegance of style which was lost and dead, and although in him it was not perfect, nevertheless by himself he saw and opened the way to this perfection..."

"Ninety-Five Theses" -- Martin Luther (1517)

Author Bio: Martin Luther was originally a German monk but turned reformer when he realized all of the corruption around him and was awakened spiritually. Luther was also a professor of theology and originally a priest but soon his teachings challenged the pope and was excommunicated and viewed as an outlaw in Europe. He realized the natural sin of humanity and that no amount of good deeds/prayers would get him to Heaven, instead he developed the belief of salvation by faith alone.

Context: This document's full name is Ninety-Five Theses on the Power and Efficacy of Indulgences and was his response to the selling of indulgences by Johann Tetzel. Efficacy means the effectiveness. The essay was pinned on the door of of the church in Wittenberg. Indulgences are the cancelling out of a sin that has already been forgiven in hopes of reliving time in purgatory, they were normally bought in Luther's time. Selling indulgences, at the time, was being abused by the Church in order to raise more money. This is Luther's first condemnation of the Church and catalyzes the Protestant Reformation.

Summary: Martin Luther begins the document with addressing the reader/public, relaying that he hopes anyone who can read it does do so and that the word should spread the word to others who do not have access to it. In his first points he outright undermines the power of the Pope by declaring that he does not have the power/ability to "remit any guilt or penalties." Basically he is saying that the Church can not grant you pardons from purgatory. He also says that forgiveness or remittance cannot be bought from the Church but will only be granted by the will of God. He also calls out the Pope for building the Basilica of St. Peter with the money of his destitute believers and not with his own abundance of money. He ends his essay saying that Christians should enter heaven with sound belief and peace rather than after having to go through many obstacles and difficulties to secure eternity in heaven.

Key Quotation: "The true treasure of the Church is the Holy Gospel of the glory and grace of God."
"Every true Christian, whether living or dead, has a share in all the benefits of Christ and of the Church, given by God, even without letters of pardon"

Salvation Through Faith Alone

Author: Martin Luther was a monk who eventually came a reformer when he found God and faith and had a "spiritual awakening". He is the one that really began the Protestant Reformation upon realizing that humans are naturally sinful, and no amount of praying or practicing of faith would save you. Rather, it was through the "righteousness of God" and was his gift, which is what this document is all about.

Context: Though the document was not actually dated, I know that it was sometime during the early 16th century when Martin Luther was beginning the Protestant Reformation seeing as though it is about his enlightenment. So this document is about a time prior to him publishing his Ninety-five Theses, which will affect him in this document seeing as though he had to struggle to "break from the norm" to find salvation from that which was troubling him before.

Summary: Martin Luther began as a monk. He went against the will of his father to join the monastery, who tried to put guilt on him, even going as far as to say “Don’t you know that you ought to honor your father?” Martin Luther then goes into a memory from his time as a monk, where the prayers would basically drive him crazy. But it was God who saved him from the “torment of prayers”.  When thinking of the words “righteousness of God,” his conscience rang loudly and he feared punishment from God. However, after much thought, he realized that salvation is God’s mercy and thus eased his conscience and brightened his spirit. He was no longer afraid of the “righteousness of God” because it was that righteousness that saved, not punished. God led Martin Luther out of his torment, showed him the way to understanding and to cleanse his mind/ease his conscience. It was God and faith that led him to true salvation.

Key Quotations: “…I soon came to the conclusion that if we, as righteous men, ought to live from faith and if the righteousness of God should contribute to the salvation of all who believe, then salvation won’t be our merit but God’s mercy.”

“For it’s by righteousness of God that we’re justified and saved through Christ.”