Author: The reign Pope Innocent III (r. 1198-1216) is generally considered to be the epitome of the medieval papacy. He firmly asserted the authority of the pope and established much of the infrastructure and bureaucracy we associate with the Church. His theocratic leanings led papal involvement in politics.
Context: This document must be considered in larger socio-historical context. Issued in 1201, between the Third Crusade (1189-1192) and the Fourth Crusade (1202-1204), this document illustrates the complicated relationship between the Church and the state. Due to complicated political and diplomatic situations in England, Argon, Leon, France, Germany, Sicily, and Tuscany, Innocent intervened in political affairs of the state.
Summary: This proclamation was issued in the early year's of Innocent's reign and details the relationship between church (the Pope) and state (the King), with the former dominating the latter. The right to rule is granted by God and, since the Pope is the final authority on Earth, kings must answer to the Pope. Thus, after explaining the insufficiency of Frederick and Phillip, Innocent chooses Otto as the Holy Roman Emperor because he is "devout" and comes from "devout ancestors." With this document, Innocent asserts papal hegemony in Rome and authority over matters both temporal and spiritual.
Key Quotation: "The empire derives its origin and its final authority from the papacy...the emperor is raised to his position by the pope who blesses him, crowns him, and invests him with the empire"
Showing posts with label origins. Show all posts
Showing posts with label origins. Show all posts
Wednesday, January 30, 2013
Sunday, January 27, 2013
"The Theory of Edward Gibbon"
Author: Edward Gibbon (1737-1794) - English historian and scholar who was inspired to write a history of Rome after a visit to the city in 1764; a member of the House of Commons from 1774-1783, where he was considered a nuisance; The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, is still considered to be a seminal work in the historiography of the Roman Empire
Biographical information from: http://www.kirjasto.sci.fi/egibbon.htm
Date/Context: Excerpted from volume 4 of The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire published in London in 1788; Gibbon, influenced by Enlightened ideas, posited that the fall of the Empire could be attributed to the distractions of Christianity and moral decay
Summary: In The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, Gibbon analyzed the influence of Christianity on the Roman Empire. He argues that the teachings of the Church undermined military allegiance and public spirit. According to Gibbon, the "tyranny" of the Church distracted emperors, commoners, and soldiers alike. Further,
Key Quotation: "If the decline of the Roman empire was hastened by the conversion of [the Emperor] Constantine, his victorious religion broke the violence of the fall, and mollified the ferocious temper of the conquerors."
Biographical information from: http://www.kirjasto.sci.fi/egibbon.htm
Date/Context: Excerpted from volume 4 of The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire published in London in 1788; Gibbon, influenced by Enlightened ideas, posited that the fall of the Empire could be attributed to the distractions of Christianity and moral decay
Summary: In The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, Gibbon analyzed the influence of Christianity on the Roman Empire. He argues that the teachings of the Church undermined military allegiance and public spirit. According to Gibbon, the "tyranny" of the Church distracted emperors, commoners, and soldiers alike. Further,
Key Quotation: "If the decline of the Roman empire was hastened by the conversion of [the Emperor] Constantine, his victorious religion broke the violence of the fall, and mollified the ferocious temper of the conquerors."
Friday, January 25, 2013
Absolute Tyranny
Context: General Marius developed one of the first professional armies by selecting not from farmers but from various veterans. He offered this army all sorts of rewards in return for their loyalty. At some point, General Sulla becomes angered and has horrible things done to Marius's soldiers.
Author: Appian - Mysterious Greek Roman (Greek by blood) born in 95 to a wealthy Roman couple living in Alexandra, Roman Egypt. He moved to Rome around the age of 25, where he took cases before the emperors. Later, he was elected as an official of Alexandra. His date of death is unknown.
Summary: Sulla brought together the people of Rome and explained that he had some plans, and that he would kill anyone going against these plans. He made a list of roughly 1640 officials that he wanted dead, and almost immediately these people were sought out and either killed or banished. This resulted in Sulla's rise to tyrannic rule; he was the first to hold autocratic rule by force and violence for longer than a short period of time.
Key Quote: "Then Sulla became king, or tyrant, a de facto - not elected but holding power by force and violence."
Author: Appian - Mysterious Greek Roman (Greek by blood) born in 95 to a wealthy Roman couple living in Alexandra, Roman Egypt. He moved to Rome around the age of 25, where he took cases before the emperors. Later, he was elected as an official of Alexandra. His date of death is unknown.
Summary: Sulla brought together the people of Rome and explained that he had some plans, and that he would kill anyone going against these plans. He made a list of roughly 1640 officials that he wanted dead, and almost immediately these people were sought out and either killed or banished. This resulted in Sulla's rise to tyrannic rule; he was the first to hold autocratic rule by force and violence for longer than a short period of time.
Key Quote: "Then Sulla became king, or tyrant, a de facto - not elected but holding power by force and violence."
Imperial City
Author: Flavius Josephus was a first century Romano-Jewish historian. He originally was against the Romans during the Jewish-Roman war as the head of Jewish forces in Galilee. During the war he became a hostage an interpreter. Once the emperor died Josephus gained and took the family name as Flavius. He then transferred to full Roman.
Context/ Date: (14-180 C.E.) This was during the first century of Romes existence under the Augustan system of government. It outlasted some civil war and some bad emperors. Still during this period the Romans had the most success and were most prosperous. This is because of a strong and dedicated army.
Summary: During peace time Flavius talks about how this current time of peace is because of the strong and determined Roman army. He describes how the Roman army protects its city and how it attacks other places. Describing exactly how the army prepares a camp like a strong working man. He also describes how disciplined the army is in not doing anything unless told by a higher rank. The army moves as one and works so well together that nothing can stop them.
Key of Quoatation: "If one goes to study the organization of [the Roman] army as a whole, it will be seen that this vast empire of theirs has to come to them as the prize of valor, and not as a gift of fortune (226)."
Context/ Date: (14-180 C.E.) This was during the first century of Romes existence under the Augustan system of government. It outlasted some civil war and some bad emperors. Still during this period the Romans had the most success and were most prosperous. This is because of a strong and dedicated army.
Summary: During peace time Flavius talks about how this current time of peace is because of the strong and determined Roman army. He describes how the Roman army protects its city and how it attacks other places. Describing exactly how the army prepares a camp like a strong working man. He also describes how disciplined the army is in not doing anything unless told by a higher rank. The army moves as one and works so well together that nothing can stop them.
Key of Quoatation: "If one goes to study the organization of [the Roman] army as a whole, it will be seen that this vast empire of theirs has to come to them as the prize of valor, and not as a gift of fortune (226)."
"Abuse of Power"
Author Bio: Author - Suetonius (70-135 CE) - Also known as Gaius Suetonius Tranquillus; belong to a wealthy Italian fmaily; life covered the reign of 5 Emperors; received most of his education in Rome; wrote biographies of literary men and Emperors.
Context: Caesar defeated Pompey supporters; Caesar's corrupt reforms that could have led to him becoming king; murder and assassination of Caesar on March 15, 44 BCE.
Summary: Suetonius states that Caesar’s actions justified his assassination because he took advantage of his power. Caesar allowed himself to be given extravagant privileges, the right be a dictator for life, and be arrogant in “his public utterances.” According to Suetonius, Caesar claimed that the Republic was nothing without a powerful leader. Caesar gained “deadly hatred” from many when he was extremely rude to other politicians and acted very pretentious.
Key Quotation: “Yet after all, his other actions and words so turn the scale, that it is thought that he abused his power and was justly slain.”
Context: Caesar defeated Pompey supporters; Caesar's corrupt reforms that could have led to him becoming king; murder and assassination of Caesar on March 15, 44 BCE.
Summary: Suetonius states that Caesar’s actions justified his assassination because he took advantage of his power. Caesar allowed himself to be given extravagant privileges, the right be a dictator for life, and be arrogant in “his public utterances.” According to Suetonius, Caesar claimed that the Republic was nothing without a powerful leader. Caesar gained “deadly hatred” from many when he was extremely rude to other politicians and acted very pretentious.
Key Quotation: “Yet after all, his other actions and words so turn the scale, that it is thought that he abused his power and was justly slain.”
The Reforms of Lycurgus
Author: Plutarch
Context: The historian Plutarch (ca.
45–120 CE) writes about the reforms of the Spartan
structure under Lycurgus (ca. 600
BCE). Until Lycurgus came to power, Sparta enjoyed a relatively unrestricted
political and economic system. Lycurgus transformed the city-state into a
military powerhouse. Consequently, Sparta began to enslave Helots in order to
provide a means for labor while the bulk of the male population was in military
training. Although Sparta did not contribute much to the arts or sciences, they
did establish a strict code of discipline that established societal order.
Summary: Plutarch examines the social and economic reforms enacted
by Lycurgus. In his excerpt, Lycurgus effectively
reduces the power of material wealth in several ways. For one, he establishes
the exclusive coinage of silver greatly inflating the market and reducing the
change of monetary robbery. Second, he outlawed all extraneous imports and
comedies such as gold and jewels, hence the use of the phrase “Spartan.”
Lycurgus also shrunk the class discrepancy by eliminating the power of the
wealthy. Lycurgus commanded that the wealthy eat the same as the poor. In
eliminating differing social tendencies, Lycurgus greatly reduced the influence
and power of the upper class. Overall, these reforms instilled the equality,
order, and discipline that Lycurgus required to build a warrior-state.
Key Quotation: “For the
rich, being obliged to go to the same table as the poor, could not make use of their
abundance, nor so much as please their vanity by looking at or displaying it
(77).”
Petrine Theory
Author Bio: Pope Leo I held the papacy from 440 to 461. Little is known about his life prior to his election to the papacy. He is best known for strengthening the papal office, which earned him the title "The Father of the Papacy." He was also the first Pope to be called "The Great."
Date/Context: In the Early Middle Ages, the Catholic Church struggled to maintain unity in doctrine with the Church in the East. The Authority of the Pope as supreme leader of the Catholic Church was disputed members of the Church in the East. This document re-declares the role of the Pope first cited in the Gospel of Matthew.
Summary: The Petrine Theory reaffirms Jesus' declaration of the Papacy. Pope Leo I explains that Jesus Christ gave authority to all the Apostles, but made St. Peter the head of all the Apostles. He then goes on to condemns any group of people who separates themselves from the papacy. He continues by saying the successors of the Apostles, the Bishops, have the duty to care for the Churches. However, the successor of Peter, the Pope, is the head of the Churches in the whole world.
Key Quotation: “In my humble person he [Peter] should be seen and honored who has the care over all the shepherds and the sheep committed to him, and whose dignity is not lacking in me, his heir, although I am unworthy (217).”
Date/Context: In the Early Middle Ages, the Catholic Church struggled to maintain unity in doctrine with the Church in the East. The Authority of the Pope as supreme leader of the Catholic Church was disputed members of the Church in the East. This document re-declares the role of the Pope first cited in the Gospel of Matthew.
Summary: The Petrine Theory reaffirms Jesus' declaration of the Papacy. Pope Leo I explains that Jesus Christ gave authority to all the Apostles, but made St. Peter the head of all the Apostles. He then goes on to condemns any group of people who separates themselves from the papacy. He continues by saying the successors of the Apostles, the Bishops, have the duty to care for the Churches. However, the successor of Peter, the Pope, is the head of the Churches in the whole world.
Key Quotation: “In my humble person he [Peter] should be seen and honored who has the care over all the shepherds and the sheep committed to him, and whose dignity is not lacking in me, his heir, although I am unworthy (217).”
Thursday, January 24, 2013
The Transition from Republic to Principate
Author: Tacitus was one of the earliest Greek writers on the art of war and is credited as the first author to provide a complete guide to securing military communications.
Date/ Context: This piece is written after a civil war in Europe war and it is written about how the war was won and the outcome of it.
Summary: Tacitus writes about how the winner of the war, Augustus Caesar won the people over with bribes. While his people were distracted he got to work establishing a Senate and putting in his own laws. He makes the illusion that like everything he controls is peaceful and perfect. He revolutionized his country by stripping him people of their equality and outing himself and their unopposed leader.
Quote: “Stripped of equality, all look up to the commands of a sovereign without the least apprehension for the present" (177).
Date/ Context: This piece is written after a civil war in Europe war and it is written about how the war was won and the outcome of it.
Summary: Tacitus writes about how the winner of the war, Augustus Caesar won the people over with bribes. While his people were distracted he got to work establishing a Senate and putting in his own laws. He makes the illusion that like everything he controls is peaceful and perfect. He revolutionized his country by stripping him people of their equality and outing himself and their unopposed leader.
Quote: “Stripped of equality, all look up to the commands of a sovereign without the least apprehension for the present" (177).
"The Glory of the City"
The Glory of the City, Strabo
Context: The Glory of the City offers a very short but descriptive explanation of Rome and all of the wonderful things that it offers. It is unclear when exactly it was written but it was sometime between 44 BC and 31 BC while Strabo lived in Rome.
Author: Strabo was a Greek philosopher, historian, and geographer. He is most famous for his work Geographica which offered descriptions of people and places from different regions of the word during his era. Strabo lived and studied in Rome for years, which offers an explanation as to why he has such positive feelings towards the city.
Summarize: The Glory of the City basically just explains how great Rome is at the time. The city is fortunate enough to have paved roads, a plentiful supply of water from the aqueducts, and houses with their own with water pipes. It also explains that the present generation is responsible for all of the luxuries that exist because the "ancients bestowed little attention upon the beautifying of Rome" (234). The also have wonderful arenas for activities such as the circus and wrestling games. Rome also offers amphitheaters and temples that are so amazing that it would be sad to describe anything after them. The tombstones are even fabulous and equip with statues. Strabo concludes with explaining that each work of art is even better than the next, causing you to forget what you saw before.
Key Quotation: "Each successive work causes you speedily to forget that which you have seen before. Such then is Rome!" (235).
Context: The Glory of the City offers a very short but descriptive explanation of Rome and all of the wonderful things that it offers. It is unclear when exactly it was written but it was sometime between 44 BC and 31 BC while Strabo lived in Rome.
Author: Strabo was a Greek philosopher, historian, and geographer. He is most famous for his work Geographica which offered descriptions of people and places from different regions of the word during his era. Strabo lived and studied in Rome for years, which offers an explanation as to why he has such positive feelings towards the city.
Summarize: The Glory of the City basically just explains how great Rome is at the time. The city is fortunate enough to have paved roads, a plentiful supply of water from the aqueducts, and houses with their own with water pipes. It also explains that the present generation is responsible for all of the luxuries that exist because the "ancients bestowed little attention upon the beautifying of Rome" (234). The also have wonderful arenas for activities such as the circus and wrestling games. Rome also offers amphitheaters and temples that are so amazing that it would be sad to describe anything after them. The tombstones are even fabulous and equip with statues. Strabo concludes with explaining that each work of art is even better than the next, causing you to forget what you saw before.
Key Quotation: "Each successive work causes you speedily to forget that which you have seen before. Such then is Rome!" (235).
"The Sermon on the Mount"
Author Bio: Author- Matthew (lived during and after the lifetime of Jesus)- former Israeli tax collector on behalf of the Roman Empire, one of the twelve disciples and follower of Jesus of Nazareth. Credited as the author of the first book of the Gospels, Matthew.
Speaker- Jesus of Nazareth (ca. 3 BC- 30 CE) - Jewish religious leader and healer from Israel, central to the founding of Christianity. Known as Jesus Christ to followers, Jesus was known as the Messiah and Savior whose coming had been prophesied in the Old Testament of the Bible. His teachings are recorded in the New Testament of the Bible, specifically in the Four Gospels which include Matthew (source of this text), Mark, Luke, and John.
Date/Context: This sermon was spoken sometime during the final three years of Jesus's lifetime (~30 CE), when the majority of his teachings and works were performed. During this time, Jesus traveled throughout the Israeli countryside, teaching to his disciples and followers. The Bible also reports that he preformed numerous miracles during this time as well, such as healing the sick. At this time, Israel and Judea were under Roman rule, with Herod Antipas ruling as king and Pontius Pilate as the prefect.
Summary: This sermon extols the values of peace, love, and forgiveness, while Jesus instructs his followers on how to live lives pleasing to God. He begins with what are commonly referred to as the Beatitudes, in which Jesus praises the virtues of humility, peace, purity, and obedience to God. He gives his followers hope for a better future in heaven in the face of persecution, and encourages them to live holy lives so that others will want to seek God because of their example. The disciples and Christians are given a high standard of morality to adhere to, including constant love and forgiveness towards others. He rejects the standard "eye for an eye" mentality of revenge, and encourages forgiveness towards enemies, even encouraging followers to pray for their enemies and love them just as God loves everyone. Humility and modesty are again stressed as Jesus encourages his disciples to pray privately in their homes instead of in public for public reward, and he details what is now known as The Lord's Prayer as a sample prayer to follow.
Key Quotation:
"You are like the light for the world. A city built on a high hill cannot be hid. Nobody lights a lamp and puts it under a bowl; instead he puts it on the lamp-stand, where it gives light for everyone in the house. In the same way your light must shine before people, so that they will see the good things you do and give praise to your Father in heaven."
Speaker- Jesus of Nazareth (ca. 3 BC- 30 CE) - Jewish religious leader and healer from Israel, central to the founding of Christianity. Known as Jesus Christ to followers, Jesus was known as the Messiah and Savior whose coming had been prophesied in the Old Testament of the Bible. His teachings are recorded in the New Testament of the Bible, specifically in the Four Gospels which include Matthew (source of this text), Mark, Luke, and John.
Date/Context: This sermon was spoken sometime during the final three years of Jesus's lifetime (~30 CE), when the majority of his teachings and works were performed. During this time, Jesus traveled throughout the Israeli countryside, teaching to his disciples and followers. The Bible also reports that he preformed numerous miracles during this time as well, such as healing the sick. At this time, Israel and Judea were under Roman rule, with Herod Antipas ruling as king and Pontius Pilate as the prefect.
Summary: This sermon extols the values of peace, love, and forgiveness, while Jesus instructs his followers on how to live lives pleasing to God. He begins with what are commonly referred to as the Beatitudes, in which Jesus praises the virtues of humility, peace, purity, and obedience to God. He gives his followers hope for a better future in heaven in the face of persecution, and encourages them to live holy lives so that others will want to seek God because of their example. The disciples and Christians are given a high standard of morality to adhere to, including constant love and forgiveness towards others. He rejects the standard "eye for an eye" mentality of revenge, and encourages forgiveness towards enemies, even encouraging followers to pray for their enemies and love them just as God loves everyone. Humility and modesty are again stressed as Jesus encourages his disciples to pray privately in their homes instead of in public for public reward, and he details what is now known as The Lord's Prayer as a sample prayer to follow.
Key Quotation:
"You are like the light for the world. A city built on a high hill cannot be hid. Nobody lights a lamp and puts it under a bowl; instead he puts it on the lamp-stand, where it gives light for everyone in the house. In the same way your light must shine before people, so that they will see the good things you do and give praise to your Father in heaven."
"Feudal Obligations"
Author Bio: Bishop Fulbert of Chartres. He was the Bishop of the Cathedral of Chartres, was responsible for one of its many reconstructions and also taught at the Cathedral school.
Context: Feudalism is a decentralized form of power with very distinct classes. In classic Feudalism there was the King on top, then lords who reigned over a region and vassals who were the class beneath the lords. Vassals swore fealty or loyalty to a lord and in return would receive a section of land or a fief that they could harvest a crop on. Along with their fealty the vassals would also pay homage, meaning that they would fight on the lord's command in order to protect him and the lord promised to protect the vassal from external forces. This type of feudalism was mainly based on military service.
Summary: Bishop Fulbert writes this letter to Duke William of Aquitanians on the relationship between a lord and his vassal. The Bishop believes that the lord and the vassal have an equal relationship in the respect they show for each other. The vassal should always remember to be harmless, safe, honorable, useful, easy and practicable to the lord. The vassal should not only be those six things and avoid doing evil but he also needs to do good. If he does not perform any good, then his avoidance of the bad has no meaning. A vassal should always look to counsel and help his lord in order to keep the worth to the fealty he swore. On the other hand, the lord in return should also be those 6 things because otherwise he will be looked upon with bad faith.
Key Quotation: "However, that the faithful vassal should avoid these injuries is proper, but not for this does he deserve his holding; for it is not sufficient to abstain from evil, unless what is good is done also."
Context: Feudalism is a decentralized form of power with very distinct classes. In classic Feudalism there was the King on top, then lords who reigned over a region and vassals who were the class beneath the lords. Vassals swore fealty or loyalty to a lord and in return would receive a section of land or a fief that they could harvest a crop on. Along with their fealty the vassals would also pay homage, meaning that they would fight on the lord's command in order to protect him and the lord promised to protect the vassal from external forces. This type of feudalism was mainly based on military service.
Summary: Bishop Fulbert writes this letter to Duke William of Aquitanians on the relationship between a lord and his vassal. The Bishop believes that the lord and the vassal have an equal relationship in the respect they show for each other. The vassal should always remember to be harmless, safe, honorable, useful, easy and practicable to the lord. The vassal should not only be those six things and avoid doing evil but he also needs to do good. If he does not perform any good, then his avoidance of the bad has no meaning. A vassal should always look to counsel and help his lord in order to keep the worth to the fealty he swore. On the other hand, the lord in return should also be those 6 things because otherwise he will be looked upon with bad faith.
Key Quotation: "However, that the faithful vassal should avoid these injuries is proper, but not for this does he deserve his holding; for it is not sufficient to abstain from evil, unless what is good is done also."
"The Leadership of Alexander" - Arrian
Author Bio: Arrian was a Greek historian and philosopher who was one of the most distinguished and well-known authors during the 2nd-century Roman Empire. His most prominent work is Anabasis, which chronicled the military campaigns and exploits of Alexander the Great. Though a great admirer of Alexander the Great, he was mainly focused on the military aspects of the chronicle.
Context/Date: Arrian was writing in the first century of the Common Era in the Roman Empire, but the actual events he describes take place around 325 BCE. Arrian is reflecting on the strong leadership of Alexander as he retreats back from India close to the end of his exploration and expansion. Alexander and his army are struggling to get through the desert after Alexander's men convince him to return to Macedon. Arrian shows how, despite the hard journey, Alexander's army never questioned his leadership.
Summary: Alexander and his army are crossing the desert, barely able to carry on, but doing so because they are so desperate to find water. Alexander himself is dying of thirst, but marches on at the head of his men to help them endure and show them that their misery is equally shared. A small group of soldiers break off from the group to look for water and discover a small puddle in a gully. Bringing the water back in a helmet, the soldiers give their only source of water to Alexander. Alexander thanks the men and promptly pours the water on the ground. He is making the statement that if no one else could have a drink of water, than neither would he: he was equal to and no better than them. This act provides huge inspiration and a newfound resolve in his men, allowing them to endure and carry on.
Key Quotation:
"Alexander, with a word of thanks for the gift, took the helmet, and, in full view of his troops, poured the water on the ground. So extraordinary was the effect of this action that the water wasted by Alexander was as good as a drink for every man in the army. I cannot praise this act too highly, it was a proof, if anything was, not only of his power of endurance, but also of his genius for leadership."
"Alexander and the Brotherhood of Man"
Author Bio: The speaker of this piece was Alexander the Great. Alexander was the king of Macedon. He is mostly known for having a strong military and his attack on Persia. The author of this document is PLUTARCH. He was a Greek historian known for his biographies.
Date/Context: The documents time period ranges around 330 BC. During this time Alexander the Great decided to expand into Persian land which created a lot of tension. Also during this time Alexander was trying to gain power and keep his reign over the Greek people. He did this because he had a goal to have the strongest army in the land.
Summary: Alexander treated all Greeks as barbarians and wanted all people to live under his rule. His kingdom became full of banishment's and many things shady things happening within the people with power. And those who didn't follow his rules or his whims he overpowered with the army. He saw all wrong doers as aliens in his society. Alexander tried to make everyone a single people under one government rule.
Key Quotation:
- "He had done so his kingdom would have been filled with warfare, banishment's and secret plots."
- " And to regard their clothing, food, marriages and manners as common to all, blended together by their blood and their children
Date/Context: The documents time period ranges around 330 BC. During this time Alexander the Great decided to expand into Persian land which created a lot of tension. Also during this time Alexander was trying to gain power and keep his reign over the Greek people. He did this because he had a goal to have the strongest army in the land.
Summary: Alexander treated all Greeks as barbarians and wanted all people to live under his rule. His kingdom became full of banishment's and many things shady things happening within the people with power. And those who didn't follow his rules or his whims he overpowered with the army. He saw all wrong doers as aliens in his society. Alexander tried to make everyone a single people under one government rule.
Key Quotation:
- "He had done so his kingdom would have been filled with warfare, banishment's and secret plots."
- " And to regard their clothing, food, marriages and manners as common to all, blended together by their blood and their children
"The Breakdown of Roman Unity" Sallust
Author Bio: Roman historian and politician influenced by Thucydides, author of "Funeral Oration of Pericles" and against the old Roman aristocracy. He was a loyal friend and follower of Julius Caesar. Sallust was an active member in politics.
Date/Context: The document was written at a time when the Roman Empire was on the verge of collapse after so many years of adversity, but also prosperity, therefore perfectly fitting the era and its issues. The author, Sallust, is a credible and reliable author as he was very active and involved in politics, and therefore can be trusted to illustrate at least one opinion of politics of the time.
Summary: The main idea that Sallust discusses is that of how emerging political parties and factions contributed to the fall of the Roman empire after years of internal peace within the government. Before the destruction of the Carthage, there was no political strife because the people and the senate governed together in peace due to a common fear: “fear of the enemy preserved the good morals of the state.” Unfortunately when that shared fear evaporated “wantonness and arrogance naturally arose” and internal peace vanished. The nobles began to abuse their power and the disparity between classes became evident, and a two-party system emerged along with the destruction of the state. Tiberius and Gaius Gracchus defied the corruption and were slain, therefore illustrating the terrible means which parties took in order to remain in power. In the end, Sallust concludes that the fall of the Roman Empire, and of peaceful society, comes when one party wishes to overpower and overthrow another without compromise or restraint. The fall of the Roman Empire serves as warning for modern-day societies.
Key Quotation: "It is the spirit which has commonly ruined great nations, when one party desires to triumph over another by any and every means and to avenge itself on the vanquished with excessive cruelty" (161).
The Trial of Socrates, Plato (I,111)
Author Bio: Plato lived from 427-347 B.C. Plato was a student of Socrates and was born in, and eventually returned to, Athens, Greece. He was a philosopher and mathematician and founded the Academy of Athens, the first western institution of higher learning. Plato was a teacher to Aristotle and believed that human reason and knowledge should be perfected for the betterment of the soul. Clearly, Plato has a bias; it can be assumed that he idolized his mentor, Socrates, and would only write great things about him.
Date/Context: The Trial of Socrates was written by Plato in 399 B.C. After the Peloponnesian War ended in 404 B.C, A Spartan occupation force replaced the Athenian democracy from 404 to 403. Although a democracy was reinstated, it was not did not show tolerance towards ideas or freedom of speech as the Athenian democracy did before it. Socrates disliked teachers who taught for a fee and shared information and encouraged self-reflection. In 399 B.C, the government accused him of not believing in the gods of the state and corrupting the youth. Plato watched his trial and made an account of his defense. Unfortunately, Socrates was condemned to death.
Summary: Socrates first starts of by stating that most of his accusers do not even know and cannot tell why he is villainous, but simply repeat the charges that men use to condemn all philosophers: that they teach things up in the clouds and under the earth, have no gods, and make the worse appear better for the cause. He then goes on to explain the he is not upset and ashamed that his life is coming to an untimely end because the only things he considers in life is whether his actions are right or wrong. He would rather be sentenced to death than cease to teach philosophy. He sarcastically explains that he is "corrupting the youth" by encouraging them to care about wisdom and truth as opposed to money, honor and reputation. He states the he is not arguing for his sake, but for the people of Athens. He says that he is God's gadfly (Gadfly can be defined as a fly who bites livestock but also as a person who provokes others into action through criticism). Society will not find another person to arouse, persuade, and reproach the men of the state. He states that after his death a punishment much greater than his will await his murderers; if his murderers think that by killing him they can prevent someone from censuring their evil lives, they are mistaken. He closes by asking society to punish his sons if they care for riches more than virtue in their adult lives.
Key Quotation:
"There you are mistaken: a man who is good for anything ought not to calculate the chance of living or dying; he ought to only consider whether in doing anything he is doing right or wrong..."
"A Christian Defense"
Author Bio: (Speaker) Christian apologists is a christian theology that aims to announce a basis for Christian faith and defending the faiths against objections.Also to defend the Christian position. (Author) Tertullian is a prolific early Christian author. He was the first Christian author to produce a collection of Latin Christian Literature.
Date/Context: The writing was written based off the way that the Christians were being treated in the year 160 AD. During this time Christians were being treat unfairly due to their beliefs, and nobody wanted anything to do with them.
Summary: This speech was given by a Christian apologist, she wanted to get the others around to stop having so much hatred toward them for being a christian and not believing in a living god like everyone else. They are speaking to the people who are against having Christians around because they come off as being different, and accused of murdering babies to eat them. All the Christians are treated as an alien, should men hate what they do not know deserves hatred? No one wanted to listen to what any Christian had to say about the types of things they believe in or why they believe in it.
Key Quotations: "Meanwhile, there is one thing for which she strives: That she be not condemned without a hearing..." (pg.208)
"Christians alone are not permitted to say nothing that would clear their name, vindicate the truth, and aid the judge to come to a fair decisions." (pg.208)
"We are always spoken of in this way, yet you take no pains to bring into the light the charges which for so long a time have been made against us." (pg.209)
Date/Context: The writing was written based off the way that the Christians were being treated in the year 160 AD. During this time Christians were being treat unfairly due to their beliefs, and nobody wanted anything to do with them.
Summary: This speech was given by a Christian apologist, she wanted to get the others around to stop having so much hatred toward them for being a christian and not believing in a living god like everyone else. They are speaking to the people who are against having Christians around because they come off as being different, and accused of murdering babies to eat them. All the Christians are treated as an alien, should men hate what they do not know deserves hatred? No one wanted to listen to what any Christian had to say about the types of things they believe in or why they believe in it.
Key Quotations: "Meanwhile, there is one thing for which she strives: That she be not condemned without a hearing..." (pg.208)
"Christians alone are not permitted to say nothing that would clear their name, vindicate the truth, and aid the judge to come to a fair decisions." (pg.208)
"We are always spoken of in this way, yet you take no pains to bring into the light the charges which for so long a time have been made against us." (pg.209)
"The Funeral Oration of Pericles"
NOTE: This is a sample PDP compiled from GoogleDocs created by groups of students. Please follow this format when creating your own PDP.
Author Bio: Author - Thucydides (ca. 460-400 BCE) - Greek historian who was born in Alimos; a product of Sophist movement; considered the father of scientific history & founder of modern historiography; strove to maintain impartiality & accuracy in his accounts
Speaker - Pericles (ca. 495-429 BCE, r. 461-429 BCE) - leader of Athens largely responsible for Delian League; initiates rebuilding of Parthenon for glory of Athens & as public works project; called "the first citizen of Athens" by Thucydides
Date/Context: Alliances between competing city-states created tensions in Greek world; Athens as democracy; The beginning of the Peloponnesian Wars (431-404 BCE), in which Sparta and its allies (Peloponnesian League) are fighting with Athens and its allies (Delian League) in order to check the imperialistic Athens’ power; this speech was delivered in 430 at the beginning of the Peloponnesian Wars
Summary: In this speech to widows and parents of the fallen soldiers, Pericles describes the greatness of Athenian society as a justification for the deaths and continued fighting. Pericles highlights the individual’s status in democracy, that he has free will to go about his pursuits. However, when called upon by the state, he willingly defends her to keep her free. He extols the glories of Athens as a mighty city-state founded on knowledge and reason, and he tells these relatives that any man should be proud to fight and die for such a wonderful and admirable cause. He describes the men as honorable and praises their sacrifice. He declares Athens to be superior to Sparta, and that although the Athenian soldiers do not undergo such rigorous training as Spartans they are no less brave and should be esteemed highly for their sacrifice. Further, he emphasizes that after completing hard work, one should enjoy beauty and wealth. Finally, he reminds citizens to be proud of their sacrifice and to continue to fight and work in support of this great city.
Key Quotation: (quotations for all groups are listed below)
- “I have no wish to make a long speech on subject familiar to you all: so I shall say nothing about the warlike deeds by which we acquire our power or the battles in which we or our fathers gallantly resisted our enemies greek or foreign.”
- “Happiness depends on being free, and freedom depends on being courageous.”
- “Others are brave out of ignorance; and, when they stop to think, they begin to fear. But the man who can most truly be accounted brave is he who best knows the meaning of what is sweet in life and of what is terrible, and then goes out undeterred to meet what is to come.”
- “But the man who can most truly be accounted brave is he who best knows the meaning of what is sweet in life and what is terrible, and then goes out undeterred to meet what is to come.”
- “Our love of what is beautiful does not lead to extravagance; our love of the things of the mind does not make us soft.”
Tuesday, January 22, 2013
Reflection - "Western Civ. Cradle of Learning"
What is the main idea of this editorial? What are the strengths of Bennett's argument? What are the weaknesses of his argument? Do you agree or disagree with Bennett? Why?
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